Cravens Inspections

CSST Gas Pipe

2011-12-07T20:34:00.000-08:00

CSST gas pipe present. Lightning strikes may cause CSST gas pipe to fail as this type of pipe attracts lightning like a lightning rod. Manufacturers settled a class action lawsuit without admitting anything in 2004. Recommend buyer have gas pipe further evaluated by either a licensed electrician familiar with CSST and its installation requirements or by the city building code inspector. I would advise the client to familiarize themselves with CSST gas pipe.

Home Inspection Services

Asbestos Cement (Mineral Fiber) Siding

2011-11-11T13:43:00.000-08:00

ASBESTOS CEMENT (MINERAL FIBER) SIDING
Asbestos cement siding is essentially a light concrete panel reinforced with asbestos fibers. It was a common siding material in the mid 1900s.

Asbestos cement siding typically comes in large shingles. Sometimes the surface is grooved or mildly corrugated. They are usually painted white or pastel colors. This siding is almost always installed horizontally, with consecutively higher rows overlapping the row below. Be careful when identifying this material. There are other materials very similar in appearance to the asbestos cement shingle.

Asbestos cement is a good siding material that, in many areas, has unfairly developed a bad reputation because of its asbestos content. There is no evidence that there is any health issue associated with this siding while on a building. Asbestos fibers can be a health issue if they are friable. This means that fibers are free to float around in the air and may be inhaled by people.
With asbestos cement siding, the asbestos is not free or friable. People sanding or cutting asbestos cement shingles should consider this, but other than during construction activities, this shouldn’t be an issue.

The siding is extremely durable and its only arguable weakness is that because it is brittle, it is susceptible to mechanical damage. However, most other sidings are also susceptible to mechanical damage, and one has to hit an asbestos cement shingle pretty hard to break it
Another advantage to the asbestos cement siding is that it is tolerant of moisture, and while the substrate may be vulnerable if it is installed too close to grade, the asbestos cement siding itself will not deteriorate even if buried in the ground.

Another benefit of the asbestos cement siding is its non-combustibility and, to a lesser extent, its fire resistance. As most people are aware, asbestos is used as insulation against heat in many applications. However, since asbestos cement siding is typically secured with steel nails, there is a limit to the fire resistance.

Matching replacement pieces for damaged shingles may be hard to find.
Home Inspection Services

Federal Pacific Electric Panels

2011-11-07T20:30:00.000-08:00

** Safety Warning*** Federal Pacific Electric service panel

This panel is a latent fire hazard: it's circuit breakers may fail to trip in response to an over current or a short circuit. Failure of a circuit breaker to trip can result in a fire, property damage, or personal injury. A circuit breaker that may not trip does not afford the protection that is intended and required. Simply replacing the circuit breakers is not a reliable repair. While the panel may appear in acceptable condition at this limited cursory inspection, a licensed electrician who is familiar with this equipment should be called to inspect the panel for immediate fire and shock hazards, and regardless of its visually-apparent condition, the buyer should consider having this equipment replaced. Additional information about the fire and shock hazards associated with this equipment can be read on the internet at http://www.inspect-ny.com/fpe/fpepanel.htm.

Asbestos Cement (Mineral Fiber) Siding

2011-10-11T13:43:00.000-07:00

Shrinkage Cracks in Concrete

2011-09-13T06:47:00.000-07:00

Newly-placed concrete develops tensile stresses as differences in temperature and moisture content develop in the drying concrete. These stresses are relieved by cracking. A number of factors can influence the development of such stresses.

Control of Crack Locations:
Control joints are sometimes installed in an attempt to determine the areas at which concrete will crack. Control joints are grooves pressed into the concrete during the finishing process. Because the concrete slab is thinner and weaker at these grooved areas, it tends to develop cracks in these grooves first. Because of the many factors which can influence the locations at which cracks develop, they sometimes appear in areas other than at control joints.

Restraint to ShrinkageAccording to the Portland Cement Association, restraint to shrinkage is the most common cause of concrete cracking. This condition is inherent in continuously-poured concrete slabs. In applications such as concrete slabs and residential foundation walls, cracking is inevitable and expected.

As the surface of concrete dries, water evaporates from the spaces between particles. As this water dissipates, the particles move closer together, resulting in shrinkage of the concrete. Because the surface of a concrete slab is exposed to air but the underlying concrete is not, concrete near the surface dries and shrinks at a rate different from that of the underlying concrete. The underlying concrete acts as a restraint to shrinkage, resulting in cracking of the surface layer.

Factors Influencing Locations of Crack Development
Thermal cracking:
Temperature differences can contribute to the development of cracks.The chemical hydration process through which concrete hardens produces heat which causes concrete to expand. At the same time, concrete at the surface of the slab is exposed to air and loses water through evaporation. Both of these conditions contribute to cooling and shrinking of the concrete near the surface.
The hot, expanding underlying concrete acts as a restraint to shrinkage of the cooling, shrinking surface concrete. This condition produces tensile stresses which are relieved by cracking of concrete near the surface.
Plastic cracking:
Water may sometimes evaporate from the surface concrete faster than moisture can migrate from the underlying concrete to replace it. When this happens, surface concrete will dry more quickly than underlying concrete. The resulting differences in moisture content produce tensile stresses which are relieved by cracking of concrete near the surface.

Shrinkage cracking:
When concrete is mixed, more water than is needed for hydration is mixed with the dry components, such as sand, cement and an aggregate. Most of the water will eventually evaporate, causing shrinkage of the concrete slab. Since water evaporates from the surface, which is exposed to air, at a rate different from the underlying concrete, this differential shrinkage rate produces tensile stresses which are relieved by cracking of concrete near the surface.

Identifying Shrinkage CracksThe following are visual clues which help to differentiate shrinkage cracks from other types of cracks which can appear in concrete slabs and foundation walls.

Vertical displacement:
Cracks which are caused by soil settlement or heaving typically exhibit vertical displacement of the concrete; concrete on one side of the crack will be higher than concrete on the other side.
Linear crack continuity:
Cracks caused by shrinkage are typically not linearly continuous. Although they make look continuous at first, if viewed closely, interruptions in the crack line can be seen.
Continuity through the slab:Shrinkage cracks are not continuous through the slab, but are actually cracks in the concrete surface.

Corrosion:
When reinforcement steel is placed too near the surface, it can corrode. Expansion results as steel is converted to iron oxide through corrosion. This expansion can crack the concrete surface. When the crack is caused by corroding steel, corrosion is typically visible at the slab surface.

Alkali-aggregate reaction:
Alkali-aggregate reaction is deterioration resulting from the reaction of an aggregate with alkali hydroxides in the concrete. Indications of this type of deterioration may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or displacement of different portions of a structure.

Safe Rooms

2011-08-13T06:52:00.000-07:00

A safe room, also known as a panic room, is a fortified room that is installed in a private residence or business to provide a safe hiding place for inhabitants in the event of an emergency.

Safe Rooms Around the World

In Mexico, where kidnappings are relatively common, some people use safe rooms as an alternative (or a supplement) to bodyguards.

In Israel, bullet- and fire-resistant security rooms have been mandated for all new construction since 1992.

Since the 1980s, every U.S. embassy has had a safe room with bullet-resistant glass.
Perhaps the largest safe room will belong to the Sultan of Brunei. The planned 100,000-square foot room will be installed beneath his 1,788-room, 2,152,782-square foot residence.

Why are safe rooms used? Reasons include:

to hide from burglars. The protection of a safe room will afford residents extra time to contact police;
to hide from would-be kidnappers. Many professional athletes, actors and politicians install safe rooms in their houses;
protection against natural disasters, such as tornadoes and hurricanes. Underground tornado bunkers are common in certain tornado-prone regions of the United States;
protection against a nuclear attack. While safe rooms near the blast may be incinerated, those far away may be shielded from radioactive fallout. This type of safe room, known as a fallout shelter, was more common during the Cold War than it is today;
to provide social distancing in the event of a serious disease outbreak; and
fear of an abusive spouse.

Safe rooms can be traced back as far as the Middle Ages. Castles had a "castle keep," a room located in the deepest part of the castle, which was designed so the feudal lord could hide during a siege. In the United States, safe rooms were used in the Underground Railroad during the 1800s, where secret rooms hid escaping slaves. In the 1920s, hidden rooms stored Prohibition-banned liquor. Safe rooms designed for weather protection have their origins in storm cellars. The features of the modern safe room are mostly derived from fallout shelters during the 1950s, which were created in response to the fear of nuclear attacks.

Various events of the past decade have spurred a rise in the popularity of safe rooms, including New Year's Eve during “Y2K," the terrorist attacks in New York City in 2001, and the subsequent anthrax poisonings that led to fears of civil unrest and war. Yet, it was the 2002 film Panic Room, starring Jodie Foster, that heightened public awareness of safe rooms and their perceived need. In fact, the term "panic room" became the popular name for what were previously known as "safe rooms" as a result of the movie, although companies that create the rooms still prefer to call them "safe rooms."

Today, they have become a status symbol in wealthy areas such as Bel Air and Manhattan, where it is believed there are thousands of such rooms. However, it is difficult to estimate the number of safe rooms because many homeowners will not publicize the existence of their safe rooms. Even real estate agents tend to hide the location of safe rooms, or even the fact that a house contains one, until they know a buyer is serious about purchasing the house.
Location
The safe room’s location must be chosen carefully. It should not be located in the basement, for instance, if intruders are likely to enter the house from that location. Ideally, occupants will be closer than the intruders to the safe room at the time that the intrusion has been detected. This way, the occupants will not be forced to cross paths with the intruder in order to reach the safe room, such as in a stairway. Occupants can plan multiple routes to a safe room to avoid detection by the intruder who is blocking the main route.

Design

Safe-room designs vary with budget and intended use. Even a closet can be converted into a rudimentary safe room, although it should have a solid-core door with a deadbolt lock. High-end custom models costing hundreds of thousands of dollars boast thick steel walls, video banks, computers, air-cleaning systems, bulletproof Kevlar®, and protection against bacterial and chemical infiltration.
Recommendations for specific design elements are as follows:

doors: These are one of the most critical components of the safe room design. A bullet-resistant door with internal steel framing can weigh several hundred pounds, yet it must operate smoothly, easily, and without fail in an emergency. The hardware must be selected to provide substantial, secure locking without compromising the smooth operation of the door itself. Most importantly, it must allow the door to be secured quickly, preferably from a single control point. The hardware should not be capable of being overridden or tampered with from the outside.
floors: Concrete is an adequate material for the floor. In other forms of floor construction, such as wood, it is important to provide supplementary protection suitable to the anticipated type of emergency. As safe room construction often uses heavy materials, it is important to ensure that the floor can support a large load.
sound insulation: The attackers may try to verbally coerce the occupants to leave the safe room. Effective sound insulation will limit the ability for such unwanted communication. Also, sound insulation will prevent the intruders from hearing phone conversations between the occupant and police.
walls and ceilings: Wall construction that spans from floor to ceiling is generally preferred because of the structural continuity of the framing. Bricks and blocks, while bullet-resistant, can become dislodged from repeated sledgehammer battering. Steel stud walls, braced with additional reinforcing ties, can be faced with steel sheet or bullet-resistant materials, such as Kevlar®. These, in turn, may be covered with tile, sheetrock or other decorative finishes. Steel and Kevlar® panels are available in large sheet sizes. This helps minimize the number of joints that can be potential weak points of an assembly. It is important to not overlook penetrations that may be made for light fixtures, power points or plumbing pipes. Ductwork that passes through protected walls should also be carefully considered to ensure that the security is not breached or they are not used to transfer poisonous gasses into the safe room.
cameras and monitors: Concealed cameras located outside the room enable its occupant to secretly monitor the movement and numbers of intruders. Effective camera systems may incorporate one visible camera outside the room so that an intruder disabling the exposed camera may not think to look for hidden cameras.
generator: A self-contained power system is standard in most higher-end safe rooms.

Items to keep in a safe room:

bottled water and non-perishable foods: There should be a small provision of bottled water and non-perishable foods (such as dried trail mix);
communication devices: Ideally, all three of the following devices should be stored in the safe room;
a cell phone and charger, which are convenient, but they may not operate through thick safe room walls. The charger will not work if no electrical receptacles are installed, so those are required, too;
a land-line phone: Since cell phones may not work in a safe room, or because they may lose power, a land-line phone is recommended. It should, however, be on a separate line from the rest of the house so that intruders are less likely to disable it;
a two-way radio;
blankets: Occupants might be there for a while, so they might as well be comfortable;
first aid kit: Even if occupants make it to the safe room, they may have been injured by the intruder en route. It is unlikely that he will allow the occupants to re-enter the room after they leave it to look for band-aids;
prescription medication: Small quantities of necessary medications should be stored in the safe room, or else occupants may be forced to surrender their position during a medical emergency. Having a hundred cans of tuna and a flat-screen TV does little good if your only asthma inhaler is left on the kitchen table;
flashlights: Severe weather can knock out electricity to the house, or intruders may intentionally cut the power;
sanitation supplies: Safe rooms built on a budget often don't have a toilet. A bucket can be used as a low-cost alternative;
weapons: If the intruders manage to enter the safe room, occupants should be prepared to defend themselves. Pepper spray is a common choice, and firearms are certainly no less effective; and
gas masks, which may become necessary in the event that the intruders force poisonous gas into the safe room. Where an odorless gas might be used, an electronic device may be installed to detect any noxious fumes or poisons.

In summary, safe rooms are increasingly popular rooms designed to protect occupants from various types of emergencies.

Tree Hazards

2011-07-13T13:31:00.000-07:00

Although trees are generally a desirable feature of home landscaping, they can pose a threat to buildings in a number of different ways. Inspectors may want to educate themselves about tree dangers so that they can inform their clients about potentially dangerous situations.

Tree Roots and Foundations

Tree roots cannot normally pierce through a building's foundation. They can, however, damage a foundation in the following ways:

Roots can sometimes penetrate a building's foundation through pre-existing cracks.
Large root systems that extend beneath a house can cause foundation uplift.
Roots can leech water from the soil beneath foundations, causing the structures to settle and sink unevenly.

Other Dangers:

Trees that are too close to buildings may be fire hazards. Soffit vents provide easy access for flames to enter a house.
Leaves and broken branches can clog gutters, potentially causing ice dams or water penetration into the building.
Old, damaged or otherwise weak trees may fall and endanger lives and property. Large, weak branches, too, are a hazard, especially if weighed down by ice.
Tree roots can potentially penetrate underground drainage pipes, especially when they leak. Water that leaks from a drainage or sanitary pipe can encourage root growth in the direction of the leak, where the roots may eventually enter the pipe and obstruct its flow.
Trees may be used by insects and rodents to gain access to the building.
Falling trees and branches can topple power lines and communication lines.

Structural Defects in Trees .

Trees with structural defects likely to cause failure to all or part of a tree can damage nearby buildings. The following are indications that a tree has a structural defect:

dead twigs, dead branches, or small, off-color leaves;
species-specific defects. Some species of maple, ash and pear often form weak branch unions, while some other fast-growing species of maple, aspen, ailanthus and willow are weak-wooded and prone to breakage at a relatively young age;
cankers, which are localized areas on branches or stems of a tree where the bark is sunken or missing. Cankers are caused by wounding or disease. The presence of a canker increases the chance that the stem will break near the canker. A tree with a canker that encompasses more than half of the tree's circumference may be hazardous even if the exposed wood appears healthy;
Hollowed trunks;
Advanced decay (wood that is soft, punky or crumbly, or a cavity where the wood is missing) can create a serious hazard. Evidence of fungal activity, such as mushrooms, conks and brackets growing on root flares, stems or branches are indications of advanced decay. A tree usually decays from the inside out, eventually forming a cavity, but sound wood is also added to the outside of the tree as it grows. Trees with sound outer wood shells may be relatively safe, but this depends on the ratio of sound-to-decayed wood, and other defects that might be present;
cracks, which are deep splits through the bark, extending into the wood of the tree. Cracks are very dangerous because they indicate that the tree is presently failing;
V-shaped forks. Elm, oak, maple, yellow poplar and willow are especially prone to breakage at weak forks;
The tree leans at more than 15 degrees from vertical. Generally, trees bent to this degree should be removed if they pose a danger. Trees that have grown in a leaning orientation are not as hazardous as trees that were originally straight but subsequently developed a lean due to wind or root damage. Large trees that have tipped in intense winds seldom recover. The general growth-form of the tree and any uplifted soil on the side of the tree opposite the lean provide clues as to when the lean developed.
Binoculars are helpful for examining the higher portions of tall trees for damage.
When planting trees, they should be kept far from the house. It is impossible for the homeowner to reliably predict how far the roots will spread, and trees that are too close to a building may be a fire hazard.
Do not damage roots. In addition to providing nutrition for the tree, roots anchor the tree to the ground. Trees with damaged roots are more likely to lean and topple than trees with healthy roots. Vehicles are capable of damaging a tree's root system.
Dead trees within the range of a house should be removed. If they are not removed, the small twigs will fall first, followed by the larger branches, and eventually the trunk. This process can take several years.

Inspect your trees periodically for hazards, especially in large, old trees. Every tree likely to have a problem should be inspected from bottom to top. Look for signs of decay and continue up the trunk toward the crown, noting anything that might indicate a potential hazard.
In summary, trees that are too close to buildings can potentially cause structural damage.

Soils & Settlement

2011-06-13T13:37:00.000-07:00

Soil is a naturally-occurring mixture of mineral and organic ingredients with a definite form, structure, and composition. It’s composed primarily of minerals which are produced from parent material which is broken into small pieces by weathering. Larger pieces are stones, gravel, and other rock debris. Smaller particles are sand, silt, or clay. Since the original materials vary from place to place, the exact composition of soil varies according to location. A common example of soil composition by volume might be:

45% Minerals (clay, silt, sand, gravel, stones).
25% Water (the amount varies depending upon precipitation and the water-holding capacity of the soil).
25% Air (an essential ingredient for living organisms).
5% Organic matter or humus (both living and dead organisms).

Mineral particles give soil texture. Sand particles range in diameter from 2 mm to 0.05 mm, feel gritty and can be easily seen with the unaided eye. Silt particles are between 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm and feel like flour. Clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm and cannot be seen with the unaided eye. Because of the small particle size, clay soils can sometimes experience large amounts of expansion and contraction in volume with changes in moisture content.

Water and air occupy the pore spaces—the area between soil particles. The final ingredient of a soil is organic matter. Organic matter consists of dead plant and animal material and the billions of living organisms that inhabit soil.

The concern with soil in respect to building is the ability of soil to bear the load of the structure while remaining stable. Ensuring long-term stability requires proper compaction and consolidation of soil before a permanent load is placed upon it. Examples of a permanent load would be foundation footings and walls or a concrete floor or driveway slab.

The excavation process disturbs soil, loosening it and causing spaces between soil particles to become much larger. For this reason, engineering specifications often require that foundations be placed on undisturbed soil.
In areas at which a home is built partially or completely on fill, such as homes built on hillsides, that fill must be made as solid as possible before a permanent load is placed on it. This is done by mechanical compaction of the soil. Soil is placed in layers (called “lifts”). Each layer is mechanically compacted by impact and sometimes by vibration.
When larger areas such as a hillside lot are compacted, heavy equipment is used. For smaller areas like backfill around basement foundation walls, a jumping jack tamper is used which is operated by one person.
Compaction is the process of forcing air from the spaces between soil particles. Compaction with a jumping jack tamper is somewhat inexact. In determining the point at which soil is adequately compacted, the operator listens to the tone of the tamper impacting the soil. When soil is adequately compacted, the tone will have a ringing quality which will not change. A change in tone indicates that compaction is still taking place.
Compaction increases the density of the soil and improves its ability to bear a load. Compaction is affected by a number of factors:

Soil type (clay, sand, silt, level of organic matter, etc.)
Soil characteristics (uniformity, gradient, plasticity, etc.)
Soil thickness
Method of compaction
Moisture content at the time of compaction.

Consolidation is the process of forcing water from the spaces between soil particles. Soil is more permeable to air than to water. This means that the compaction process may remove from the soil a large percentage of air, but a significant percentage of water may remain.
Soil undergoes both primary and secondary consolidation.Primary consolidation is short-term and takes place during the mechanical compacting process. Secondary consolidation is long-term and takes place after the compaction process is complete and the permanent loads are in place.
During secondary consolidation, the weight placed on soil slowly forces water out of the spaces between soil particles. As this happens, soil particles will move close together and settling will occur. The source of the weight would be both the structure and the overlying soil.
The amount of secondary consolidation which can be expected increases with the depth of the affected area. An excavation with backfill 15 feet deep would experience more secondary consolidation than an excavation with backfill 8 feet deep.
A common scenario is when a structure is built partially on undisturbed soil and partially on compacted fill. Soil in these two areas will consolidate at different rates as the weight of the newly-built structure forces water from between soil particles. This is called “differential settlement”.
Settling will be reflected in any part of structure bearing upon the settled soil. In adequately-compacted soil, settling will be so minor that evidence won’t be visible. Extreme differential settlement will create stresses which are relieved by cracking.
Which materials crack depends on the properties of the material and the rate of settling. More brittle materials will crack first. The effects of soil movement are most often seen as cracks in interior and exterior wall coverings like drywall and plaster and in masonry foundation walls.

Even concrete, which most people think of as brittle, can bend if pressure is applied slowly over a long time period. If pressure is applied over a shorter time period, concrete will crack.
Compaction and consolidation are affected by the composition of the soil. Fine-grained soils have more interior surfac e area and can hold more air and water than course-grained soils. Here's an example. Drywall is made of much courser particles than cement. An ounce of drywall dust contains about 5,000 square feet of interior surface area. An ounce of cement dust contains about 50,000 square feet of interior surface area.
This means that fine-grained soils like clays have more interior surface area which can contain water. In order to force water out of the spaces between particles, surface tension must be overcome. "Surface tension" is the tendency of water to cling to a surface. When you fill a glass with water, it's surface tension that makes the water level slightly higher around the edges where water comes into contact with the glass surface. Water is clinging to the glass.
The greater interior surface area of fine-grained soils results in greater surface tension. Fine-grained are also typically low-permeability soils, meaning that water moves through them slowly. These conditions increase the amount of time and pressure required for soil to consolidate. Soils will continue to consolidate until the resistance to pressure of the materials of which the soil is composed reach equilibrium with pressure from the weight of soil and structure above.
The rate of consolidation is affected by the soil composition, levels of moisture saturation, the amount and nature of the load on the soil and state of consolidation of the soil.
Another moisture-related problem is the addition of excessive moisture to the soil. This can create a condition in which water is absorbed into spaces between soil particles. Soil becomes less dense, which reduces its ability to support a load.

Geothermal Heating & Cooling Systems

2011-05-14T06:44:00.000-07:00

Geothermal systems are home heating and cooling systems that gather heat from the earth. Geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) use the relatively constant temperature of sub-surface soil as the exchange medium.

Geographical Distribution

As of 2004, five countries -- El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland and Costa Rica -- generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources. In Iceland, geothermal energy is so cheap that some sections of pavement are heated.
In the United States, roughly 50,000 geothermal heat pumps are installed every year. The U.S. leads the world in geothermal exploitation.
The combined production of geothermal energy for all uses places third among renewable energy sources, following hydroelectricity and biomass, and ahead of solar and wind.

Where does geothermal energy come from?

Beneath the Earth's crust, there is a layer of hot, molten rock called magma. Heat is continually produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radioactive materials, such as uranium and potassium. The amount of heat within the first 33,000 feet (or 10,000 meters) of the Earth's surface contains 50,000 times more energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world combined.

Benefits of Geothermal Energy:

Energy efficiency. GHPs require 25% to 50% less electricity than conventional heating and cooling systems. According to the EPA, geothermal heat pumps can reduce energy consumption — and corresponding emissions — up to 44%, compared to air-source heat pumps, and up to 72%, compared to electric resistance heating with standard air-conditioning equipment.
Design flexibility. Geothermal heat pump systems can be installed in both new and retrofit construction. Equipment rooms can be scaled down in size because the hardware requires less space than is needed by conventional HVAC systems. GHP systems also provide excellent "zone" space conditioning, which allows different parts of a home to be heated or cooled to different temperatures.
Durability. Since GHP systems have relatively few moving parts and the parts are sheltered inside a building, the systems are durable and reliable. The underground piping often carries warranties of 25 to 50 years, and the heat pumps can last more than 20 years. The components are easily accessible, which helps ensure that the required maintenance is performed on a timely basis.
Noise reduction. As they have no outside condensing units (such as those in air conditioners), there's no noise outside the home. Geothermal heat pumps are so quiet inside of a house that users may not be aware they are operating.

How do geothermal systems work?
A geothermal heat pump, unlike a furnace, does not create heat by burning fuel. Instead, it collects the earth's natural heat through a series of pipes, called a loop, installed below the frost line. At that depth, which varies by climate zone, the soil remains at a relatively constant temperature throughout the year. Fluid circulates through the loop and carries heat to the house. There, an electrically driven compressor and a heat exchanger concentrate the heat and release it inside the home at a higher temperature, where ductwork distributes the heat to different rooms. In summer, the underground loop draws excess heat from the house and allows it to be absorbed into the earth. The system cools the home in the same way that a refrigerator keeps food cool -- by drawing heat from the interior, rather than by forcing in cold air. Types of Systems
There are four basic types of geothermal systems. Selection of the most appropriate system depends on the climate, soil conditions, available land, and local installation costs at the site. All of these systems can be used for residential and commercial building applications. They include:

Horizontal: This type of installation is generally the most cost-effective for residential installations, particularly for new construction where sufficient land is available. The most common layouts use either two pipes (one buried at 6 feet, and the other at 4 feet), or two pipes placed side-by-side buried 5 feet in the ground in a 2-foot wide trench.
Vertical: Large commercial buildings and schools often use vertical systems because the land area required for horizontal loops is prohibitive. Vertical loops are also used where the soil is too shallow for trenching, and they minimize the disturbance to existing landscaping. For a vertical system, holes (approximately 4 inches in diameter) are drilled about 20 feet apart and 100 to 400 feet deep. Two pipes are inserted into these holes and connected at the bottom to form a loop. The vertical loops are connected to the heat pump in the building.
Pond/lake: A supply-line pipe is run underground from the building to a body of water and coiled into circles at least 8 feet under the surface. In order for the body of water to be adequate, it must meet minimum volume, depth and quality criteria.
Open-loop system: This type of system uses well or surface water as the heat exchange fluid that circulates directly through the GHP system. Once it has circulated through the system, the water returns to the ground through the well, a recharge well, or surface discharge. This option is practical only where there is an adequate supply of relatively clean water, which must comply with local codes and regulations regarding groundwater discharge.

CostA geothermal system usually costs about $2,500 per ton of capacity. A typical home uses a 3-ton unit costing roughly $7,500. That initial cost is nearly twice the price of a regular heat pump system that includes air conditioning. The cost of drilling, however, can be considerable; drilling can cost in excess of $30,000, depending on the terrain and other local factors. Systems that require drilling vertically deep into the ground will cost much more than systems where the loops are in a horizontal fashion and closer to the surface. Despite these initial costs, a geothermal system saves enough on utility bills that the investment is often recouped in five to ten years.

In summary, geothermal systems heat and cool homes using sub-surface soil as an exchange medium. Geothermal systems are more expensive to install than conventional furnaces, but their operating costs are significantly lower.

Moisture Intrusion

2011-04-13T13:43:00.000-07:00

Moisture intrusion can be the cause of building defects, as well as health ailments for the building's occupants. Inspectors should have at least a basic understanding of how moisture may enter a building, and where problem areas commonly occur.

Some common moisture-related problems include:

structural wood decay;
high indoor humidity and resulting condensation;
expansive soil, which may crack the foundation through changes in volume, or softened soil, which may lose its ability to support an overlying structure;
undermined foundations;
metal corrosion;
ice dams; and
mold growth.

Mold can only grow in the presence of high levels of moisture. People who suffer from the following conditions can be seriously (even fatally) harmed if exposed to elevated levels of airborne mold spores:

asthma;
allergies;
lung disease; and/or
compromised immune systems.

Note: People who do not suffer from these ailments may still be harmed by elevated levels of airborne mold spores.

How does moisture get into the house?

Moisture or water vapor moves into a house in the following ways:

air infiltration. Air movement accounts for more than 98% of all water vapor movement in building cavities. Air naturally moves from high-pressure areas to lower ones by the easiest path possible, such as a hole or crack in the building envelope. Moisture transfer by air currents is very fast (in the range of several hundred cubic feet of air per minute). Replacement air will infiltrate through the building envelope unless unintended air paths are carefully and permanently sealed;
by diffusion through building material. Most building materials slow moisture diffusion, to a large degree, although they never stop it completely;
leaks from roof;
plumbing leaks;
flooding, which can be caused by seepage from runoff or rising groundwater; it may be seasonal or catastrophic; and
human activities, including bathing, cooking, dishwashing and washing clothes. Indoor plants, too, may be a significant source of high levels of humidity.

Climate Zones
In the northern U.S., moisture vapor problems are driven primarily by high indoor relative humidity levels, combined with low outdoor temperatures during the winter. In the southern U.S. (especially the southeast), the problem is largely driven by high outdoor humidity and low indoor temperatures during summer months. Mixed climates are exposed to both conditions and can experience both types of problems. Humid climates, in general, will be more of a problem than dry climates. Wind-driven rain is the main cause of leaks through the building envelope.

Check for moisture intrusion in the following areas:

Roofs
A roof leak may lead to the growth of visible mold colonies in the attic that can grow unnoticed. Roof penetrations increase the likelihood of water leaks due to failed gaskets, sealants and flashing. The number of roof penetrations may be reduced by a variety of technologies and strategies, including:

consolidation of vent stacks below the roof;

exhaust fan caps routed through walls instead of the roof;

high-efficiency combustion appliances, which can be sidewall-vented;

electrically powered HVAC equipment and hot water heaters that do not require flue; and
adequate flashing. Oftentimes, inspectors discover missing, incorrectly installed or corroded flashing pipes.

Plumbing

Distribution pipes and plumbing fixtures can be the source of large amounts of moisture intrusion. If the wall is moist and/or discolored, then moisture damage is already in progress. Most plumbing is hidden in the walls, so serious problems can begin unnoticed.

One of the most important means of moisture management in the bathroom is the exhaust fan. A non-functioning exhaust fan overloads the bathroom with damp air. If the exhaust fan doesn’t turn on automatically when the bathroom is in use, consider recommending switching the wiring or switch. The lack of an exhaust fan should be called out in the inspection report. The fan should vent into the exterior, not into the attic.

The bathroom sink, in particular, is a common source of moisture intrusion and damage. Although overflow drains can prevent the spillage of water onto the floor, they can become corroded and allow water to enter the cabinet.

Bathroom windows need to perform properly in a wide range of humidity and temperature conditions. Check to see if there are any obvious breaks in the weatherstripping and seals. Are there are stains or flaking on the painted surfaces?

Check showers and bathtubs. Is the caulking is cracked, stiff or loose in spots? Are there cracked tiles or missing grout that may channel water to vulnerable areas? If some water remains in the bathtub after draining, it may be a warning sign of possible structural weakening and settlement in the floor beneath the tub.

Utility Room

The water heater tank should be clean and rust-free.

The area around the water softener tank should be clean and dry.

Check that all through-the-wall penetrations for fuel lines, ducts, and electrical systems of heating system are well-sealed. All ducts should be clean and dust-free. Inspect the air supply registers in the house for dust accumulation.

Filters, supply lines, exterior wall penetrations, vents, ductwork and drainage of the cooling system must all be in good working order to avoid moisture problems.

Attic

Look for stains or discolorations at all roof penetrations. Chimneys, plumbing vents and skylight wells are common places where moisture may pass through the roof. Any such locations must be inspected for wetness, a musty smell and/or visible signs of mold.
Are there areas of the insulation that appear unusually thin?

Rust or corrosion around recessed lights are signs of a potential electrical hazard.

Foundations
Model building codes typically require damp-proofing of foundation walls. The damp-proofing shall be applied from the top of the footing to the finished grade. Parging of foundation walls should be damp-proofed in one of the following ways:

bituminous coating;
3 pounds per square yard of acrylic modified cement;
1/8-inch coat of surface-bonding cement; or
any material permitted for water-proofing.

In summary, moisture can enter a building in a number of different ways. High levels of moisture can cause building defects and health ailments.

Carbon Monoxide Questions & Answers

2011-03-15T05:55:00.000-07:00

Consumer Product Safety Commission
Carbon Monoxide Questions and Answers
CPSC Document #466

What is carbon monoxide (CO) and how is it produced?
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a deadly, colorless, odorless, poisonous gas. It is produced by the incomplete burning of various fuels, including coal, wood, charcoal, oil, kerosene, propane, and natural gas. Products and equipment powered by internal combustion engine-powered equipment such as portable generators, cars, lawn mowers, and power washers also produce CO.
How many people are unintentionally poisoned by CO?
On average, about 170 people in the United States die every year from CO produced by non-automotive consumer products. These products include malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters and room heaters; engine-powered equipment such as portable generators; fireplaces; and charcoal that is burned in homes and other enclosed areas. In 2005 alone, CPSC staff is aware of at least 94 generator-related CO poisoning deaths. Forty-seven of these deaths were known to have occurred during power outages due to severe weather, including Hurricane Katrina. Still others die from CO produced by non-consumer products, such as cars left running in attached garages. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that several thousand people go to hospital emergency rooms every year to be treated for CO poisoning.

What are the symptoms of CO poisoning?
Because CO is odorless, colorless, and otherwise undetectable to the human senses, people may not know that they are being exposed. The initial symptoms of low to moderate CO poisoning are similar to the flu (but without the fever). They include:

Headache
Fatigue
Shortness of breath
Nausea
Dizziness

High level CO poisoning results in progressively more severe symptoms, including:

Mental confusion
Vomiting
Loss of muscular coordination
Loss of consciousness
Ultimately death

Symptom severity is related to both the CO level and the duration of exposure. For slowly developing residential CO problems, occupants and/or physicians can mistake mild to moderate CO poisoning symptoms for the flu, which sometimes results in tragic deaths. For rapidly developing, high level CO exposures (e.g., associated with use of generators in residential spaces), victims can rapidly become mentally confused, and can lose muscle control without having first experienced milder symptoms; they will likely die if not rescued.

How can I prevent CO poisoning?

Make sure appliances are installed and operated according to the manufacturer's instructions and local building codes. Most appliances should be installed by qualified professionals. Have the heating system professionally inspected and serviced annually to ensure proper operation. The inspector should also check chimneys and flues for blockages, corrosion, partial and complete disconnections, and loose connections.
Never service fuel-burning appliances without proper knowledge, skill and tools. Always refer to the owners manual when performing minor adjustments or servicing fuel-burning equipment.
Never operate a portable generator or any other gasoline engine-powered tool either in or near an enclosed space such as a garage, house, or other building. Even with open doors and windows, these spaces can trap CO and allow it to quickly build to lethal levels.
Install a CO alarm that meets the requirements of the current UL 2034 or CSA 6.19 safety standards. A CO alarm can provide some added protection, but it is no substitute for proper use and upkeep of appliances that can produce CO. Install a CO alarm in the hallway near every separate sleeping area of the home. Make sure the alarm cannot be covered up by furniture or draperies.
Never use portable fuel-burning camping equipment inside a home, garage, vehicle or tent unless it is specifically designed for use in an enclosed space and provides instructions for safe use in an enclosed area.
Never burn charcoal inside a home, garage, vehicle, or tent.
Never leave a car running in an attached garage, even with the garage door open.
Never use gas appliances such as ranges, ovens, or clothes dryers to heat your home.
Never operate unvented fuel-burning appliances in any room where people are sleeping.
Do not cover the bottom of natural gas or propane ovens with aluminum foil. Doing so blocks the combustion air flow through the appliance and can produce CO.

During home renovations, ensure that appliance vents and chimneys are not blocked by tarps or debris. Make sure appliances are in proper working order when renovations are complete.

What CO level is dangerous to my health?The health effects of CO depend on the CO concentration and length of exposure, as well as each individual's health condition. CO concentration is measured in parts per million (ppm). Most people will not experience any symptoms from prolonged exposure to CO levels of approximately 1 to 70 ppm but some heart patients might experience an increase in chest pain. As CO levels increase and remain above 70 ppm, symptoms become more noticeable and can include headache, fatigue and nausea. At sustained CO concentrations above 150 to 200 ppm, disorientation, unconsciousness, and death are possible.

What should I do if I am experiencing symptoms of CO poisoning and do not have a CO alarm, or my CO alarm is not going off?
If you think you are experiencing any of the symptoms of CO poisoning, get outside to fresh air immediately. Leave the home and call your fire department to report your symptoms from a neighbor’s home. You could lose consciousness and die if you stay in the home. It is also important to contact a doctor immediately for a proper diagnosis. Tell your doctor that you suspect CO poisoning is causing your problems. Prompt medical attention is important if you are experiencing any symptoms of CO poisoning. If the doctor confirms CO poisoning, make sure a qualified service person checks the appliances for proper operation before reusing them.

Are CO alarms reliable?CO alarms always have been and still are designed to alarm before potentially life-threatening levels of CO are reached. The safety standards for CO alarms have been continually improved and currently marketed CO alarms are not as susceptible to nuisance alarms as earlier models.

How should a consumer test a CO alarm to make sure it is working?Consumers should follow the manufacturer's instructions. Using a test button tests whether the circuitry is operating correctly, not the accuracy of the sensor. Alarms have a recommended replacement age, which can be obtained from the product literature or from the manufacturer.

How should I install a CO Alarm?CO alarms should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions. CPSC recommends that one CO alarm be installed in the hallway outside the bedrooms in each separate sleeping area of the home. CO alarms may be installed into a plug-in receptacle or high on the wall. Hard wired or plug-in CO alarms should have battery backup. Avoid locations that are near heating vents or that can be covered by furniture or draperies. CPSC does not recommend installing CO alarms in kitchens or above fuel-burning appliances.

What should you do when the CO alarm sounds?Never ignore an alarming CO alarm! It is warning you of a potentially deadly hazard.
If the alarm signal sounds do not try to find the source of the CO:
a. Immediately move outside to fresh air.
b. Call your emergency services, fire department, or 911.
c. After calling 911, do a head count to check that all persons are accounted for. DO NOT reenter the premises until the emergency services responders have given you permission. You could lose consciousness and die if you go in the home.
d. If the source of the CO is determined to be a malfunctioning appliance, DO NOT operate that appliance until it has been properly serviced by trained personnel.

If authorities allow you to return to your home, and your alarm reactivates within a 24 hour period, repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 and call a qualified appliance technician to investigate for sources of CO from all fuel burning equipment and appliances, and inspect for proper operation of this equipment. If problems are identified during this inspection, have the equipment serviced immediately. Note any combustion equipment not inspected by the technician and consult the manufacturers’ instructions, or contact the manufacturers directly, for more information about CO safety and this equipment. Make sure that motor vehicles are not, and have not been, operating in an attached garage or adjacent to the residence.

What is the role of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) in preventing CO poisoning?
CPSC staff worked closely with Underwriters Laboratories (UL) to help develop the safety standard (UL 2034) for CO alarms. CPSC helps promote carbon monoxide safety by raising awareness of CO hazards and the need for correct use and regular maintenance of fuel-burning appliances. CPSC staff also works with stakeholders to develop voluntary and mandatory standards for fuel-burning appliances and conducts independent research into CO alarm performance under likely home-use conditions.

Do some cities require that CO alarms be installed?Many states and local jurisdictions now require CO alarms be installed in residences. Check with your local building code official to find out about the requirements in your location.

Should CO alarms be used in motor homes and other recreational vehicles?
CO alarms are available for boats and recreational vehicles and should be used. The Recreation Vehicle Industry Association requires CO alarms in motor homes and in towable recreational vehicles that have a generator or are prepped for a generator.
---
Consumers can obtain this publication and additional publication information from the Publications section of CPSC's web site or by sending your publication request to info@cpsc.gov.
This document is in the public domain. It may be reproduced without change in part or whole by an individual or organization without permission. If it is reproduced, however, the Commission would appreciate knowing how it is used. Write the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Office of Information and Public Affairs, 4330 East West Highway, Bethesda, MD 20814 or send an e-mail via CPSC's On-Line Form.

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission is charged with protecting the public from unreasonable risks of serious injury or death from thousands of types of consumer products under the agency's jurisdiction. The CPSC is committed to protecting consumers and families from products that pose a fire, electrical, chemical, or mechanical hazard. The CPSC's work to ensure the safety of consumer products - such as toys, cribs, power tools, cigarette lighters, and household chemicals - contributed significantly to the decline in the rate of deaths and injuries associated with consumer products over the past 30 years.

To report a dangerous product or a product-related injury, call CPSC's hotline at (800) 638-2772 (800) 638-2772 or CPSC's teletypewriter at (301) 595-7054 (301) 595-7054 , or visit CPSC's web site at www.cpsc.gov/talk.html. To join a CPSC email subscription list, please go to https://www.cpsc.gov/cpsclist.aspx. Consumers can obtain this release and recall information at CPSC's Web site at http://www.cpsc.gov/.

Home Inspection Services

Lubricate your bathroom vent fan

2011-02-15T08:07:00.000-08:00

Your bathroom vent fan stays cooler and quieter if you keep it well oiled.

OverviewDust, lint and other airborne particles can build up on your bathroom vent fan’s moving parts — making it run hotter and louder. Regular maintenance keeps your fan in great shape for years to come.

Steps

Turn off the power to the circuit for the fan. Remove the fan’s cover by pinching the springs or releasing the screws that hold it in place on the housing. If paint holds the edges of the cover to the ceiling, run a utility knife around the edge of the housing to break the paint seal.
Remove the motor. In most fans, a metal bracket connects the motor to the fan’s housing, so remove the screws that connect the bracket to the housing. Some fans are connected to a metal plate that you release by squeezing a tab or removing a screw. While removing the motor, support the fan with one hand to keep it from dropping suddenly.
Disconnect the power supply to your fan. If it’s plugged into a socket, unplug it. If wires connect your fan through the ceiling, unscrew the wire nuts holding the wires together and separate the wires. Pay special attention to the way the fan’s wires are connected so you can easily reconnect them when you reinstall the fan — you might want to snap a picture with your digital camera.
Clean the fan thoroughly. Brush off any loose dust and grime with a small paintbrush; if it’s extremely dirty, use a vacuum cleaner.
Next, remove the fan’s blade and wash it with soapy water. Wipe the motor’s exterior with a damp rag and cleaning solution, and vacuum the dust from the fan’s housing in the ceiling.
Oil the fan. Find the point where the shaft holds the motor and wipe away any dust or grime. Put a few drops of number 30 oil on both ends of the shaft where it sticks out of the motor. Then turn the shaft a few times with your hand and wipe up any excess oil running down the shaft.
Put the blade back on the shaft and make sure it spins easily.
Dry the fan and reconnect it to the housing and power supply. Test the blade with your fingers by spinning it to make sure it’s not rubbing anything. Adjust as necessary.
Put the ceiling cover back in place, turn the circuit on and test your fan. Your fan should be quieter and cleaner.

Tips & warnings

Work on your fan during daylight hours so you have plenty of natural light.
If the motor shaft seems loose or wobbles when you spin it, your fan may have worn bearings and need repairs.

Home Inspection Services

2011-01-06T09:41:00.000-08:00

Between approximately 1965 and 1973, single-strand aluminum wiring was sometimes substituted for copper branch-circuit wiring in residential electrical systems due to the sudden escalating price of copper. After a decade of use by homeowners and electricians, inherent weaknesses were discovered in the metal that lead to its disuse as a branch wiring material. Although properly maintained aluminum wiring is acceptable, aluminum will generally become defective faster than copper due to certain qualities inherent in the metal. Neglected connections in outlets, switches and light fixtures containing aluminum wiring become increasingly dangerous over time. Poor connections cause wiring to overheat, creating a potential fire hazard. In addition, the presence of single-strand aluminum wiring may void a home’s insurance policies. Inspectors may instruct their clients to talk with their insurance agents about whether the presence of aluminum wiring in their home is a problem that requires changes to their policy language.

Roof

2011-01-06T09:31:00.000-08:00

What do you mean it's not insurable - my home inspector said the roof was OK!"

Ever heard this before? Or said it? How in the world can one person's opinion of a roof be completely at odds with another? Well, it's less complicated than you might think.
It's the same roof, but we see different things.

And we're looking at different things, as well. The basic issue is that home inspectors and insurance companies are concerned with different aspects of a roof.

Your home inspector is looking at the installation practices, age and condition of the roof material, flashings, vents, chimneys, skylights, etc. In other words, your inspector is describing and reporting the condition of the roof and its components at the time of the inspection.

On the other hand, your insurance adjuster is looking for damage to the roof surface, evidence of failure of the roof covering, and remaining expected lifespan of the roof covering, among other things. In other words, your insurance adjuster is evaluating the risk that the roof represents for the near and intermediate future.

So, what does that mean to me?
As an example, lets look at a typical roof in our area. Lets say that this roof has two layers of 3-tab shingles over plywood decking, and the upper layer is 10 years old. The shingles are weathered but intact and there are no indications of leakage - in other words, this roof is in normal working order.

A home inspector might rate this roof satisfactory or acceptable because the roof is still doing its job of keeping water out of the house. The inspector might mention the relative likelihood of near term repair or replacement, but there would be no reason to call the roof defective.

An insurance company might decline coverage for this roof based on its age and multiple layers. It is likely that this roof could require replacement within 5 or 6 years. Since both layers will have to be stripped at that time, adding significantly to the cost of re-roofing, this roof might fall outside of the insurance company's underwriting guidelines.

It's important to remember that the scenario illustrated above is just that, a scenario. Because every roof is different, you should always get your initial opinion from a trusted professional, whether in the inspection or insurance industry. And remember, there's nothing wrong with getting a second opinion.

Client Comments

2009-12-08T09:45:00.000-08:00

This is a place for Client Comments. If you would like to email us instead CLICK HERE.

Helpful Links

2009-12-08T09:44:00.001-08:00

Tip of the Month

2009-12-08T09:43:00.001-08:00

Zinsco Electric Panels

2009-12-07T20:29:00.001-08:00

** Safety Warning*** A Zinsco TM or SylvaniaTM-Zinsco electrical panel

Serious electrical hazards may be present in the electrical panel which could result in overheating, fire, or inability to turn off the electrical power in the home. While the panel may appear in acceptable condition at this limited cursory inspection, a licensed electrician who is familiar with this equipment should be called to inspect the panel for immediate fire and shock hazards, and regardless of its visually-apparent condition, the buyer should consider having this equipment replaced. Significant expense may be involved. Additional information about this hazards is available at an independent building failures research website: www.inspect-ny.com/electric/Zinsco.htm

Repairing Bathtub Drains

2009-12-07T20:28:00.003-08:00

Antitip Brackets

2009-12-07T20:28:00.001-08:00

Anti-Tip Brackets for Freestanding Ranges

Anti-tip brackets are metal devices designed to prevent freestanding ranges from tipping. They are normally attached to a rear leg of the range or screwed into the wall behind the range, and are included in all installation kits. A unit that is not equipped with these devices may tip over if enough weight is applied to its open door, such as that from a large Thanksgiving turkey, or even a small child. A falling range can crush, scald, or burn anyone caught beneath.

Bracket Inspection
It may be possible to see a wall-mounted bracket by looking over the rear of the range. Floor-mounted brackets are often hidden, although in some models with removable drawers, such as 30" electric ranges made by General Electric, the drawers can be removed and a flashlight can be used to search for the bracket.

You may can firmly grip the upper-rear section of the range and tip the unit. If equipped with an anti-tip bracket, the unit will not tip more than several inches before coming to a halt. The range should be turned off, and all items should be removed from the stovetop before this action can be performed. It is usually easier to detect a bracket by tipping the range than through a visual search. This test can be performed on all models and it can confirm the functionality of a bracket.
If no anti-tip bracket is detected, inspectors should recommend that one be installed.

You may can contact the dealer or builder who installed their range and request that they install a bracket. For clients who wish to install a bracket themselves, the part can be purchased at most hardware stores or ordered from a manufacturer. General Electric will send their customers an anti-tip bracket for free.

According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), there were 143 incidents caused by range tip-overs from 1980 to 2006. Of the 33 incidents that resulted in death, most of those victims were children. A small child may stand on an open range door in order to see what is cooking on the stovetop and accidentally cause the entire unit to fall on top of him, along with whatever hot items may have been cooking on the stovetop. The elderly, too, may be injured while using the range for support while cleaning. InterNACHI inspectors who inspect ovens should never leave the oven door open while he oven is unattended.

In response to this danger, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) created standards in 1991 that require all ranges manufactured after that year to be capable of remaining stable while supporting 250 pounds of weight on their open doors. Manufacturers' instructions, too, require that anti-tip brackets provided be installed. Despite these warnings, retailer Sears estimated in 1999 that a mere 5% of the gas and electric units they sold were ever equipped with anti-tip brackets. As a result of Sears’ failure to comply with safety regulations, they were sued and subsequently required to secure ranges in nearly 4 million homes, a measure that has been speculated to have cost Sears as much as $500 million.

In summary, ranges are susceptible to tipping if they are not equipped with anti-tip brackets. Inspectors should know how to confirm that these safety devices are present.

Home Winterization

2009-12-07T20:16:00.001-08:00

Winterization is the process of preparing a home for the harsh conditions of winter. It is usually performed in the fall before snow and excessive cold have arrived. Winterization protects against damage due to bursting water pipes, and from heat loss due to openings in the building envelope.

Plumbing System
Water damage caused by bursting pipes during cold weather can be devastating. A ruptured pipe will release water and not stop until someone shuts off the water. If no one is home to do this, an enormous quantity of water can flood a house and cause thousands of dollars' worth of damage. Even during very small ruptures or ruptures that are stopped quickly, water leakage can result in mold and property damage. Broken water pipes can be costly to repair.
All exposed water pipes in cold areas, such as attics, garages, and crawlspaces, should be insulated. Foam or fiberglass insulation can be purchased at most hardware stores. Insulation should cover the entirety of a pipe.

Plastic is more tolerant of cold expansion than copper or steel. Houses in colder climates might benefit from the exclusive use of approved plastic plumbing.
Water supply for exterior pipes should be shut off from inside the house and then drained.
Sprinkler systems are particularly vulnerable to cracking due to cold-weather expansion. In addition to turning them, it helps to purge the system of any remaining water with compressed air.

Homeowners should be aware that much of the plumbing system travels through areas that are significantly colder than the rest of the house. Because it is impossible to monitor the temperature of every portion of the plumbing system, indoor air temperature should be kept high enough throughout the winter to keep pipes in any unheated places from freezing.
Leaks in the Building Envelope

Leaky window frames, door frames, and electrical outlets can allow warm air to escape into the outdoors.

Windows that leak will allow cold air into the home. Feeling for drafts with a hand or watching for horizontal smoke from an incense stick are a few easy ways to inspect for leaks. They can be repaired with tape or caulk.

On a breezy day, a homeowner can walk through the house and find far more leaks than they knew existed. Leaks are most likely in areas where a seam exists between two or more building materials.

Insulation
Because hot air rises into the attic, a disproportionately larger amount of heat is lost there than in other parts of the house. Like a winter hat that keeps a head warm, adequate attic insulation will prevent warm indoor air from escaping. Attic insulation should be 12 inches thick in cold climates.

Storm doors and windows should be installed to insulate the house and protect against bad weather.

Heating Systems
The heating system is used most during the winter so it’s a good idea to make sure that it works before it’s desperately needed. The following inspection and maintenance tips can be of some help to homeowners:
Test the furnace by raising the temperature on the thermostat. If it does not respond to the adjustment quickly it might be broken.
Replace the air filter if it’s dirty.
If the furnace is equipped with an oil or propane tank, the tank should be full.

Cooling Systems

Use a hose to remove leaves and other debris from the outdoor condensing unit, if the home is equipped with one.
Protect the unit with a breathable waterproof cover to prevent rusting and freezing of its components.

Remove and store window air conditioners when they are no longer needed. Cold air can damage their components and enter the house through openings between the air conditioner and the windowpane.

Ceiling fans can be reversed in order to warm air trapped beneath the ceiling to recirculate. A fan has been reversed if it spins clockwise.

Chimneys and Fireplaces

The chimney should be inspected for nesting animals trying to escape the cold. Squirrels and raccoons have been known to enter chimneys for this reason.
The damper should open and close with ease. Smoke should rise up the chimney when the damper is open. If it doesn't, this means that there is an obstruction in the chimney that must be cleared before the fireplace can be used.
A chimney-cleaning service professional should clean the chimney if it has not been cleaned for several years.
The damper should be closed when the fireplace is not in use. An open damper might not be as obvious to the homeowner as an open window, but it can allow a significant amount of warm air to escape.
Glass doors can be installed in fireplaces and wood stoves to provide an extra layer of insulation.
Roofs

If debris is left in gutters, it can get wet and freeze, permitting the formation of ice dams that prevent water from draining. This added weight has the potential to cause damage to gutters. Also, trapped water in the gutter can enter the house and lead to the growth of mold. For these reasons, leaves, pine needles, and all other debris must be cleared from gutters. This can be done by hand or with a hose.

Missing shingles should be replaced.

Landscape

Patio furniture should be covered.
If there is a deck, it might need an extra coat of sealer.

Adequate winterization is especially crucial for homes that are left unoccupied during the winter. This sometimes happens when homeowners who own multiple properties leave one home vacant for months at a time while they occupy their summer homes. Foreclosed homes are sometimes left unoccupied, as well. The heat may be shut off in vacant homes in order to save money. Such homes must be winterized in order to prevent catastrophic building damage.

The following measures to prepare an unoccupied home for the winter:

Winterize toilets by emptying them completely. Antifreeze can be poured into toilets and other plumbing fixtures.
Winterize faucets by opening them and leaving them open.
Water tanks and pumps need to be drained completely.
Drain all water from indoor and outdoor plumbing.
Unplug all non-essential electrical appliances, especially the refrigerator. If no electrical appliances are needed, electricity can be shut off at the main breaker.

In summary, home winterization is a collection of preventative measures designed to protect homes against damage caused by cold temperatures. These measures should be performed in the fall, before it gets cold enough for damage to occur. Indoor plumbing is probably the most critical area to consider when preparing a home for winter, although other systems should not be ignored.

Home Service Grounding Electrodes

2009-12-07T20:15:00.004-08:00

Electrical grounding systems divert potentially dangerous electrical currents by providing a path between a building’s service box and the earth. Lightning and static electricity are the most common sources of dangerous or damaging charges that can be dissipated through a grounding system. Grounding electrodes are connected to the building’s electrical system through grounding electrode conductors, also known as ground wires. A number of different metal alloys can function as grounding electrodes, the most common of which are the focus of this article.

Requirements for electrodes and ground wires:
Aluminum has a tendency to corrode and should not be used in ground wires unless they are insulated. Moisture and mineral salts from masonry are common causes of corrosion to uninsulated aluminum. It is also a poorer conductor than copper. Aluminum wires in grounding systems are not permitted in Canada.

Since grounding electrodes are not insulated, they can never be made of aluminum.
If more than one electrode is present, they must be connected to each other with a bonding jumper.

Common Types of Grounding Electrodes Grounding Rods

The most common form of grounding electrode is a metal rod that is hammered into the ground so that its entire length is submerged. we recommend that the rod be inserted vertically and in one piece, but this is not always possible in rocky areas. If the rod is hammered into sub-surface rocks it might become scratched and lose its cladding. Rust can accumulate on exposed iron or steel and degrade the conductive capacity of the rod. Unfortunately, this rust will rarely be visible to an inspector.

Electricians have been known to cut the rod when they have difficulty inserting its entire length beneath the ground. This practice violates code and can be a safety hazard. Inspectors should look for the following signs that indicate that a grounding rod has been shortened:
Rust at the rod’s top. Grounding rods have a corrosion-resistant coating but are usually made of steel or iron and are vulnerable to rusting at any location that the rod is cut.
Most rods have an etched label on their top. If this label is missing it is likely that the rod has been cut.

Utility companies sometimes allow ground rods to be shortened. A qualified electrician can test whether a shortened rod is an adequate grounding electrode.

If accessible, check the condition of the clamp that connects the grounding rod to the ground wire. Clamps should be made of bronze or copper and be tightly fastened. Requirements for rod length, thickness, and protective coating are addressed in the 2006 International Residential Code (IRC) as follows:

Rod and pipe electrodes not less than 8 feet (2438 mm) in length and consisting of the following materials shall be considered as a grounding electrode:
Electrodes of pipe or conduit shall be not smaller than trade size ¾ (metric designator 21) and, where of iron or steel, shall have the outer surface galvanized or otherwise metal-coated for corrosion protection.
Electrodes of rods of iron or steel shall be at least 5/8 inch (15.9 mm) in diameter. Stainless steel rods less than 5/8 inch (15.9mm) in diameter, nonferrous rods or their equivalent shall be listed and shall be not less than 1⁄2 inch (12.7mm) in diameter.

Notes
Although the 2006 IRC does not mention whether the rod may be driven at an angle, the 1998 California Electrical Code allows for a maximum oblique angle of 45 degrees from the vertical.
An electrician can install two grounding rods if necessary. They should be at least 6 feet apart from one another.

This electrical grounding technique was invented during World War II in Arizona, and is commonly called “Ufer” after its creator, Herbert G. Ufer. The United States Army was concerned that lightning or static electricity could cause the accidental detonation of explosives that were stored in igloo-shaped vaults. The desert climate restricted the usefulness of grounding rods, which would have to be driven hundreds of feet into the dry earth in order to be effective. Ufer advised the military to connect ground wires into the concrete-encased steel reinforcement bars (re-bar) of the bomb vaults in order to dissipate electricity effectively into the ground. Testing confirmed his theory that the relatively high conductivity of concrete would allow electric current to dissipate into a large surface area of earth. The Ufer method is more common in newer residential construction and requires a metal frame. It might be difficult for an inspector to detect this type of electrode.

The 2006 IRC details Ufer grounds as follows:

An electrode encased by at least 2 inches (51 mm) of concrete, located within and near the bottom of a concrete foundation or footing that is in direct contact with the earth, consisting of at least 20 feet (6096 mm) of one or more bare or zinc-galvanized or three electrically conductive coated steel reinforcing bars or rods of not less than 1/2 inch (12.77 mm) diameter or consisting of at least 20 (6096 mm) feet of bare copper conductor not smaller than 4 AWG shall be considered as a grounding electrode. Reinforcing bars shall be permitted to be bonded together by the usual tie wires or other effective means.

Metal Underground Water Pipes

A building’s plumbing system can be connected to the ground wire and function as a grounding electrode. For some time, this was the only mandatory grounding electrode type and it was generally preferred over other methods. As of 1987, however, this method became the only one that must be supplemented with another type of electrode. This transition is due to the increased popularity of nonconductive dielectric unions and plastic pipes. When plumbing has been replaced with plastic pipes a notice is required to be placed at the electrical service panel that states that there is a non-metallic water service. Inspectors will not be able to tell if outdoor water pipes that run to street water mains have been replaced with plastic components.

Ground wires should be firmly attached to water pipes close to the point of entry to the building. A ground wire that is loosely tied around a pipe is inadequate.
Gas pipes should never be used as grounding conductors. They usually are made of plastic at the exterior of the home and carry flammable gases that may ignite if exposed to electrical current.
The 2006 IRC states the following about water pipe electrodes:

A metal underground water pipe that is in direct contact with the earth for 10 feet (3048 mm) or more, including any well casing effectively bonded to the pipe and that is electrically continuous by bonding around insulating joints or insulating pipe to the points of connection of the grounding electrode conductor and the bonding conductors, shall be considered as a grounding electrode. Interior metal water piping located more than 5 feet (1524 mm) from the entrance to the building shall not be used as part of the grounding electrode system or as a conductor to interconnect electrodes that are part of the grounding electrode system.

Less Common Grounding Electrodes

The previously mentioned grounding electrodes constitute the vast majority of grounding systems that inspectors will encounter. The two electrodes described below are far less common, although they are recognized by the IRC.

Plate Electrodes

A plate electrode that exposes no less than 2 square feet (0.186 m2) of surface to exterior soil shall be considered as a grounding electrode. Electrodes of iron or steel plates shall be at least 1⁄4 inch (6.4mm) in thickness. Electrodes of nonferrous metal shall be at least 0.06 inch (1.5mm) in thickness. Plate electrodes shall be installed not less than 30 inches (762 mm) below the surface of the earth.

Ground Ring Electrodes

A ground ring encircling the building or structure, in direct contact with the earth at a depth below the earth’s surface of not less than 2.5 feet, consisting of at least 20 feet of bare copper conductor not smaller than No. 2 shall be considered as a grounding electrode.

In summary, a variety of home service grounding electrodes can be used to safely route unexpected electrical charges away from places that they can cause harm. Inspectors should be aware of how they differ from one another and be prepared to spot defects.

Garbage Disposals

2009-12-07T20:15:00.003-08:00

Garbage disposals are residential and commercial appliances designed to shred food waste so that it can fit through plumbing. They are usually electrically powered (although occasionally powered by water pressure) and are installed beneath sinks. Despite the convenience afforded by garbage disposals, the strain they can place on septic systems should be weighed against any potential benefits they might provide.

Why Use a Garbage Disposal ?

When food waste is discarded into the trash, it will place an enormous burden on waste management systems and harm the environment. Garbage disposals reduce the severity of these problems by routing food waste into septic systems or sewers instead of landfills.

The following are a few specific problems associated with food waste that can be curbed through the use of a garbage disposal:

It must be collected and transported long distances to landfills and waste treatment facilities.

In landfills, food scraps decompose and produce methane gas, which contributes to global warming.
Note - The above points must be weighed against the added expense of treating food waste in sewer systems and transporting it from septic systems.

Garbage Disposals and Septic Systems

If a garbage disposal discharges into a septic tank, it can place significant strain on the septic system. The amount of waste that enters the tank, particularly grease and suspended solids, will increase considerably. This load increase requires that the septic tank be pumped more often than would otherwise be required. The New York Septic Code counts the presence of a garbage disposal the same as an extra room in a house when they estimate the load placed on a septic tank. The additional strain will also reduce the life span of the septic system. Septic systems can be designed to accommodate food waste but, in general, they are not.

To test a garbage disposal for leaks, turn it on and run water through it. The water load should be great enough so that any leaks will become apparent. A good way to do this is to close the drain and fill the sink with water before releasing the stopper.

While testing a garbage disposal, never put anything other than water through it. Before turning it on, check to make sure there are no objects already in the disposal.
Do not attempt to fix a broken garbage disposal (or any other appliance) while performing a home inspection.
If a dishwasher is connected to the disposal, make sure that the line that connects them is securely attached.
Check to make sure that the garbage disposal is connected to a drain that is 1.5 inches in diameter or greater.
Check to make sure that the disposal is provided with an adequate water supply.
If the home has a double sink, check to make sure the waste pipe from the disposal has a trap installed.

Wiring Inspection

The National Electrical Code (NEC) does not require a garbage disposal to have GFCI protection. GFCI protection for this appliance is optional.
The vibration caused by the operation of a garbage disposal can cause electrical connections to separate.
Check for any loose connections in the wire compartment box at the base of the disposal.
Garbage disposals should be either hardwired or connected to an outlet through a grounded electrical outlet.
A dedicated circuit is generally recommended, although a circuit that is shared with a dishwasher is sometimes appropriate. The best authority on this distinction is the disposal’s user manual.

Maintenance and Operation Suggestions :

Put only small quantities of food into the disposal at a time. Large food scraps should be cut into smaller pieces before entering the disposal.
Never put anything down the disposal that is not food or water. Bottle caps, aluminum foil, and other non-food items can damage the disposal or get stuck in piping.
Run water while using the disposal, and for approximately 30 seconds after you turn it off. Food scraps will flow through the piping more easily if they are pushed along by water. Cold water is better than warm water for this purpose because it will force fats and grease to congeal and harden, allowing them to move more easily through pipes. Warm water can be run through the disposal while it is not in operation.
Ice can be used to clear off solidified grease and other debris from the blades in a garbage disposal.
The garbage disposal should only be used to grind non-fibrous, leftover food. If in doubt as to whether something can be put in the disposal, err on the side of caution and put it in the trash instead.

The following items should never be put in a disposal:

items that are hard enough to dull the blades, such as shells from shellfish or bones;
food that is highly fibrous, such as cornhusks, artichokes, pineapples, potato peels, asparagus, or celery should enter a disposal only in small quantities or avoided entirely.
These foods take a long time to grind and can clog the disposal or the plumbing.
grease or household oils; or chemicals.

In summary, garbage disposals have the potential to limit the amount of household trash that must be taken away to waste management facilities. They can also place additional strain on septic systems and, for this reason, they should be used infrequently. Inspectors can test disposals for leaks and proper wiring, but they should beware not to do anything that might cause them to break.

Garage Doors and Openers

2009-12-07T20:15:00.001-08:00

Garage doors are large, spring-supported doors. Garage door openers control the opening and closing of garage doors, either through a wall-mounted switch or a radio transmitter. Due to the strain that garage door components and openers regularly endure, they may become defective over time and need to be fixed or replaced. Defective components may create safety hazards as well as functional deficiencies to the garage door assembly.

The following facts demonstrate the dangers posed by garage doors:

Garage doors are typically among the heaviest moving objects in the home and are held under high tension.
Injuries caused by garage doors account for approximately 20,000 emergency room visits annually, according to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
The majority of the injuries caused by garage doors are the result of pinched fingers, although severe injuries and deaths due to entrapment occur as well. Sixty children have been killed since 1982 as a result of garage doors that did not automatically reverse upon contact.

The following components should be present during inspections and devoid of defects:

manual (emergency) release handle. All garage doors should be equipped with this device, which will detach the door from the door opener when activated. It is vital during emergency situations, such as when a person becomes trapped beneath the door or when a power outage cuts electricity to the door opener. Inspectors should activate the handle to make sure that it works, although they will have to reset the handle if it does not reset automatically.

In order for the handle to be accessible and obvious, it must be…

colored red;
easily distinguishable from rest of the garage opener system; and
no more than 6 feet above the standing surface.

Door panels.

Both sides of the door should be examined for the following:
fatigue;
cracking and dents. Aluminum doors are especially vulnerable to denting; and
separation of materials.

warning labels. The following four warning labels should be present on or around garage door assemblies:

a spring warning label, attached to the spring assembly;
a general warning label, attached to the back of the door panel;
a warning label attached to the wall in the vicinity of the wall control button, and;
a tension warning label, attached to garage door’s bottom bracket.

brackets and roller shafts.

Brackets. The garage door opener is connected to the garage door by a bracket that is essential to the function of the door opener system. Placement of the bracket where it attaches to the door is crucial to the operation of its safety features. It should attach 3 to 6 inches from the top of the door. This bracket, as well as all other brackets, should be securely attached to their surfaces.

Roller shafts. Roller shafts should be longer on the top and bottom rollers. The top rollers are the most important. Without longer shafts, if one side of the door hangs up, the door may fall out of the opening.

Door operation. The door’s operation can be tested by raising the door manually, grasping the door’s handles if it has them.

Make sure that the door:

moves freely;
does not open or close too quickly; and
opens and closes without difficulty.

Note – Do not operate the door until you have inspected the track mounts and bracing. Doors have been known to fall on people and cars when they were operated with tracks that were not securely attached and supported.

extension spring containment cables. Older garage doors may use extension springs to counter-balance the weight of the door. These require a containment cable inside the spring to prevent broken parts from being propelled around the garage if the spring snaps. Most new garages use shaft-mounted torsion springs that do not require containment cables.

wall-mounted switch. This device must be present and positioned as high as is practical above the standing surface (at least five feet as measured from the bottom of the switch) so that children do not gain access. In addition, the button must…
be mounted in clear view of the garage door; and
be mounted away from moving parts.

Automatic reverse system. As of 1991, garage doors are required to be equipped with a mechanism that automatically reverses the door if it comes in contact with an object. It is important that the door reverses direction and opens completely, rather than merely halting. If a garage door fails this test, inspectors should note it in their reports. A dial on the garage door opener controls the amount of pressure required to trigger the door to reverse. This dial can be adjusted by a qualified garage door technician if necessary.

Methods for testing the automatic reverse system:
This safety feature can be tested by grasping the base of the garage door as it closes and applying upward resistance. Inspectors should use caution while performing this test because they may accidentally damage its components if the door does not reverse course.
Some sources recommend placing a 2x4 piece of wood on the ground beneath the door, although there have been instances where this testing method has damaged the door or door opener components.

Supplemental automatic reverse system. Garage doors manufactured in the U.S. after 1992 must be equipped with photoelectric sensors or a dooredge sensor.

Photoelectric eyes. These eyes (also known as photoelectric sensors) are located at the base of each side of the garage door and emit and detect beams of light. If this beam is broken, it will cause the door to immediately reverse direction and open. For safety reasons, photo sensors must be installed a maximum of 6 inches above the standing surface.

Door edge sensors. This device is a pressure-sensitive strip installed at the base of the garage door. If it senses pressure from an object while the door is closing, it will cause the door to reverse. Door edge sensors are not as common in garage door systems as photoelectric eyes.

Safety Advice for Clients:
Homeowners should not attempt to adjust or repair springs themselves. The springs are held under extremely high tension and can snap suddenly and forcefully, causing serious or fatal injury.

No one should stand or walk beneath a garage door while it is in motion. Adults should set an example for children and teach them about garage door safety. Children should not be permitted to operate the garage door opener push button and should be warned against touching any of the door’s moving parts.

Fingers and hands should be kept away from pulleys, hinges, springs, and the intersection points between door panels. Closing doors can very easily crush body parts that get between them.
The automatic reversal system may need to be adjusted for cold temperatures, since the flexibility of the springs are affected by temperature. This adjustment can be made from a dial on the garage door opener, which should only be changed only by a trained garage door technician.

In summary, garage doors and their openers can be hazardous if certain components are missing or defective.

Conserve Energy and Save Money

2009-12-07T20:14:00.004-08:00

Are your energy bills too high? Is your home not as comfortable as you want it to be? Do you want to do more to protect the environment? Do you have teenagers at home giving your hot water bill a beating? Whatever your situation, this information will help you to find a solution that’s right for you. This guide is primarily aimed at homeowners who are thinking of upgrading or replacing their home’s existing heating or cooling systems. It also contains useful information for people who are having a home built for them, and for those who want to reduce their energy consumption in general.

While builders generally offer a standard heating or heating/cooling package, upgrades to more efficient equipment might be available. Familiarity with the different systems, fuel options, their comparative prices, and their operating costs will help you to review upgrade options with your builder. Remember to also ask about other energy-efficiency upgrades, which can range from extra insulation to a complete R-2000-certified home. Before being R-2000-certified, each home is evaluated and tested to ensure that a high level of energy efficiency has been designed and built into it. There are both financial and environmental benefits to conserving energy and using it wisely. To help you conserve even more, these tips will also direct you to resources that can help you reduce energy consumed for purposes beyond heating and cooling your home.

A Wise Choice

The options presented will help you to select heating and cooling systems that meet the needs of both your lifestyle and your checkbook. Besides the obvious savings for you that occur by lowering your consumption, by reducing demand for energy through conservation, or, in the case of electricity, from shifting consumption to times of lower demand, together we can lower the market price for the energy that is consumed. The advantages of investing in energy efficiency aren’t only felt within your family budget – they are realized in the cleaner environment that goes hand in hand with more efficient systems and the wise use of energy.

Before You Start

Putting an energy-efficient heating system into a drafty, poorly insulated house will reduce your energy bills. But you’ll notice a more dramatic savings and even make yourself more comfortable if you also make your entire house more energy-efficient. How? Here are some ideas:
Weatherstrip and caulk to seal air leaks. You may have to replace uncontrolled sources of air with designed sources to ensure proper ventilation.
Increase insulation levels where appropriate (such as in the attic and walls) to reduce heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer.

Open drapes on south-facing windows on sunny winter days so that the sun’s energy can help heat your home, and close them in summer to help keep your home cool.
Choose energy-efficient products when replacing windows and doors.
By making your house more energy-efficient, your heating and cooling systems will work less, and you may reduce the capacity needed when you replace your systems, which means more savings for you.

Why Energy Efficiency Matters

It’s good for your budget, your comfort and our environment. Each year, you spend hundreds of dollars to heat and cool your home and to heat your hot water. By installing energy-efficient equipment, which gives you the same comfort for less energy, you can lower these costs. Furthermore, the lower you can make your energy costs now, the better off you will be should energy prices go up – and conservation reduces upward pressure on energy prices.

Whenever fuels are burned – in your home, in a generating station to produce electricity, in vehicles, and elsewhere – carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide are released. These emissions contribute to environmental problems, including smog, acid rain and climate change. Reducing energy use lowers the amount of these emissions and their impact on the environment. You can help by practicing energy efficiency and conservation not only in heating and cooling your home, but everywhere at home, in the workplace, and in your transportation choices. Many factors can affect your annual energy bill, such as size and location of your home, yearly variations in weather, efficiency of your furnace and other appliances, thermostat settings, number of occupants, and the local cost of energy.

Are you serious about how to go about cutting your heating and cooling costs?

Follow these steps:
Where appropriate, improve the insulation and air sealing in your home.
Use this guide to help you decide what kinds of changes to your heating and cooling systems will be right for you.
Consult with a registered heating/cooling contractor and your fuel supplier before making a final decision.
Heating Units and Controls

There are four common types of heating units:
A furnace provides heat through a forced-air distribution system.
A boiler provides heat through a hydronic distribution system. (Hydronic systems are also referred to as hot water systems.)
A space heater supplies heat directly to the room where it is located.
A heat pump extracts heat from the air, ground and water outside the house and usually delivers it through a forced-air distribution system.
Most heating systems need air for combustion. Furnaces, boilers and space heaters that burn fuels need a supply of air to be able to burn properly, and a vent to the outdoors so that combustion gases can escape from the house. Electric heaters do not need to be vented. Combustion is a two-step process: air in, and gases out.

Air In
In the past, there was usually plenty of air leaking into a house to keep the furnace, boiler or stove burning well. Modern homes, however, are better sealed and use controlled ventilation, rather than uncontrolled leakage, to provide greater comfort and energy efficiency. Vents that supply air for heating units should never be blocked. It is important to ensure that there is an adequate supply of combustion air available, even when other air exhausting equipment is in use.

Gases Out
Venting used to be done through a chimney. Today, however, many models of natural gas, oil and propane equipment can be vented by pipe directly through the wall, which greatly simplifies installation. Remember that combustion gases cannot escape from your home unless you provide air to replace them. That’s why venting problems can often be traced to air supply problems.

Controls
The indoor temperature is automatically controlled by a thermostat. Two important considerations are type and location. Central systems are normally controlled by a single thermostat. To achieve proper temperature control, the thermostat must be located in an area where it will sense the average indoor temperature. Locations exposed to localized temperature extremes (outside walls, drafts, sunlight, hot ducts or pipes, etc.) should be avoided.

Different types of thermostats are available. Basic types maintain a fixed indoor temperature. However, you can reduce your heating costs by installing a setback thermostat, which can be programmed to automatically lower the temperature when no one is home or everyone is in bed, and then warm up the house before you get home or wake up. Savings will vary, but a setback of 3º for eight hours daily could reduce your heating costs by about 5%.

Where space heaters are used, each unit will likely be individually controlled by its own thermostat – which is usually the basic type. This allows you to keep unused areas at a lower temperature than those areas you do use.

Distribution Systems

There are three types of distribution systems:
A forced-air system circulates warmed or cooled air around the house through a network of ducts. It also provides a means of distributing ventilation air.
A hot water (hydronic) system distributes heat through hot water pipes and radiators.
Space heaters, though not technically a distribution system, provide direct heat to the room in which they are located.
It is important that a distribution system is properly designed, installed and operated to ensure maximum energy efficiency and comfort levels. Try to avoid placing any part of your distribution system outside of your home’s insulation. This is sometimes done as a simple remedy to a routing problem, but there is always some heat loss through the wall of any distribution system.

Forced Air
Registers in each room can be adjusted to control the air flow. Return registers draw air from the rooms through separate ducts back to the furnace to complete the cycle of air flow through the house. Leaks in forced-air distribution systems are often ignored because they normally do not cause any obvious damage, but it is important to avoid or eliminate such leaks. Leaks will affect a distribution system’s ability to provide comfort in all areas of the house, and leaks in some parts of the system can result in significant energy loss and/or condensation-related damage, which may be hidden from sight.

Hot Water (Hydronic) Heating
These systems distribute hot water from a boiler to radiators, convectors or under-floor heating systems in each room. In older homes, large, cast-iron radiators are common. Modern systems feature smaller boilers, narrow piping and compact radiators that can be regulated to provide temperature control in each room. Under-the-floor heating systems can be built into the floors of new and existing homes.

Space Heaters
These have no central heating unit or distribution system. Instead, individual space heaters – such as a wood stove, electric baseboards, radiant heaters and heaters fueled with oil, natural gas or propane – supply heat directly to the room. For safety, all space heaters except electric ones need to be vented to the outside. An appropriately sized space heater can supply some heat to all parts of a home if the design of the home allows for natural distribution of heat from the heater location. In most cases, more than one unit is required to comply with building code requirements, but multiple units allow you to vary the temperature around the house.

Energy Sources and Equipment Options

Natural Gas
Furnaces in forced-air heating systems, boilers in hot water systems, fireplaces and space heaters can be fueled by natural gas. It is delivered to your house through an underground pipeline. (It is not available in some areas.)

Propane
Most equipment fueled by propane is similar to that fueled by natural gas. In many cases, the only differences are one or two small components that can often be changed by a registered contractor to convert a unit from one fuel to the other. Propane is delivered by truck and stored in a tank on your property.

Gas Equipment
Because of their similarities, natural gas and propane heating equipment are discussed together. The term “gas” refers to both natural gas and propane. The cost of the two fuels differs, so remember to check for cost comparisons.

There are three main types of gas furnaces:
conventional (with a seasonal efficiency range of 55% to 68%);
mid-efficiency (78% to 82%); and
high-efficiency (90% to 98%).
Gas boilers have similar ranges of seasonal efficiency.

Older Conventional Gas Furnaces and Boilers
Some older furnaces and boilers, which are no longer produced but are still in use, require a continuous liner in a masonry chimney or a metal “B”-vent chimney. The liner is needed because the combustion gases contain water vapor, which condenses on masonry and causes deterioration over time. About 35% of the heat from the fuel goes up the chimney with these models.

Mid-Efficiency Gas Furnaces and Boilers
These models remove more heat from combustion gases so that less heat escapes when the gases are exhausted, and efficiency is improved. Depending on the circumstances, they might be vented through a wall or through a chimney.

High-Efficiency (Condensing) Gas Furnaces and Boilers
These models extract so much heat from combustion gases in order to achieve their efficiency that they can be safely vented through a narrow plastic pipe that runs through the wall.
Gas-Fueled Fireplaces
Gas fireplaces are sometimes used to provide space heating, though they are often chosen for aesthetic reasons. There can be significant differences in energy efficiency from one model to another, and the effective efficiency of some types can be significantly affected by how they are used.

Oil
Oil furnaces and boilers have a burner, a heat exchanger and a blower or pump. Oil is delivered by truck and stored in a tank, which is usually located in the basement.

Older Conventional Oil Furnaces and Boilers
Older, conventional oil furnaces and boilers with a standard burner have a seasonal efficiency generally ranging from 60% to 70%. Like older, conventional gas furnaces and boilers, they are no longer manufactured. However, in an existing model that is working well, the seasonal efficiency can be improved by replacing the burner with a flame-retention unit, which is usually a more cost-effective step than replacing the entire furnace.

New Oil Furnaces and Boilers
A typical new oil furnace or boiler has a seasonal efficiency rating generally ranging from 78% to 86%. Many of these units can be vented through the wall.

Oil Stoves
There are free-standing oil space heaters with a visible flame now available. There are no efficiency standards for these products.

Electricity

Electric-resistance systems can consist of a central furnace or boiler connected to an air or hot water distribution system, radiant panels embedded in the floor or ceiling, or a baseboard space heating system. Electricity also powers heat pumps. When electric resistance heating is used in a new home, including as a back-up for an air-source heat pump, the building code requires the house to be built with higher minimum levels of insulation.

Heat Pumps
A heat pump is usually an electrically powered system that can either heat or cool by transferring heat from one place to another. During the heating season, a heat pump extracts heat from either the air, ground or water outside the house, and transfers it indoors. In the summer, the direction of the heat flow is reversed, extracting heat from indoors and transferring it outdoors, to provide air conditioning. Because they satisfy a substantial part of your heating needs by utilizing heat that's already available, rather than consuming electricity to generate all of the heat you need, heat pumps are significantly more efficient than electric-resistance heating.

There are three main types of heat pumps:
air-source heat pumps;
earth-energy systems; and
bivalent heat pumps.
Air-Source Heat Pumps
These most commonly-used heat pumps can provide all the cooling requirements of a home and most of the heating needs, but they require an auxiliary heating source during very cold weather. This can be either an electric-resistance or a fossil-fuel unit.

Earth-Energy Systems
Also known as ground-source heat pumps, these systems transfer heat from the ground, ground water or surface water and use it to provide home heating. For summer cooling, the process is reversed. If desired, earth-energy systems can be equipped to provide domestic hot water year 'round. Electric-resistance heaters may be installed to provide supplementary heating for the coldest days.They normally utilize much less electric-resistance heat and offer significantly higher efficiency than air-source heat pumps.

Wood
Some households use wood as their main fuel, but even more use it as a supplementary source of heat. Most of these households are outside large urban areas where firewood is usually less expensive than other fuels. The most common approach to wood heating today is a wood stove or high-efficiency fireplace installed in the main living area of the house. If the house is medium-sized and relatively new, this kind of equipment can provide almost all the heat needed.

If you have an existing masonry fireplace, a high-efficiency fireplace insert could be a good option. And many models offer the pleasure of a visible wood fire.

Older or larger houses may need the additional heating power offered by a wood-burning furnace. If your present heating system is a forced-air furnace that uses a more costly fuel, you might want to consider an add-on wood furnace. It is installed beside the existing furnace, and the duct work is modified so that it can be shared by both furnaces. Combination wood-oil or wood-electric furnaces are options for new or replacement systems. Stoves that burn pellets made from wood or agricultural crops, such as corn kernels, are also available. Pellets are automatically fed into the burner and the householder simply dials in the required temperature on the thermostat.

When shopping for wood-burning equipment, visit several wood heat retail stores and discuss appliance selection, location and installation with a knowledgeable salesperson. Always buy wood-burning equipment that is certified for safety. It is also preferable to buy equipment that has been certified as meeting the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or Canadian CSA-B415 emission standards. These certified wood-burning appliances produce one-tenth of the chimney emissions, and one-third higher efficiency than earlier-built units.

Outdoor Furnace
“Outdoor” wood furnaces or boilers are also on the market. They may appear attractive because they will burn low-cost material you would not think of putting in an indoor appliance, and they can burn for long periods between refueling. However, they can be low on efficiency and high on emissions.

Solar Energy
Like wood, solar energy is a renewable resource. Solar heating does not involve the combustion of fuels, so it does not produce harmful emissions. It can be as simple as south-facing windows serving as passive solar collectors. Passive solar heating is free and should be an important consideration in the design of homes. Homes built to high levels of energy efficiency and designed to make the most use of free solar heating can save hundreds of dollars a year on energy bills.

Other Energy Sources
Residential systems are available to generate electricity from sunlight and wind. In certain situations, such as remote locations, one of these may be the most practical option. In addition, the government is establishing standardized processes and technical requirements which will require electricity distributors to allow customers with qualifying generation equipment to supplement their utility/electricity needs with power they generate themselves.

Cooling Systems (Air Conditioning)

Two types of units cool an entire house: a central air conditioner and a heat pump. If you need to cool a specific area, a window air-conditioning unit could be your most energy-conserving choice. Regardless of what type you are considering, remember that models vary in efficiency ratings,and efficiency has a direct impact on operating costs, so optimizing efficiency should be a priority. Consider buying an ENERGY STAR®-qualified model.

Central Cooling
If you decide you want to cool your entire house, you should consider which system to install – central air conditioning or a heat pump – when reviewing your home’s heating needs. An air conditioner is actually a heat pump that can only cool. Remember: Your heating decisions can affect your cooling options.

Duct Work for Central Air
Duct work is generally needed to carry cool air throughout the house in a central air-conditioning system. If you have a forced-air heating system, you can usually use the same ducts for cooling. If you do not have duct work, you can look into installing it, or consider air-conditioning technologies that have been developed for homes without ducts. These alternatives are more costly, so if you are considering them, investigate your options with your heating/cooling contractor.

Mini-Splits
Mini-splits are systems suited to homes without a central air-distribution system. No duct work is required. The system consists of two components: an outdoor condensing unit, and an indoor evaporator and fan. The indoor section can usually be mounted on any interior or exterior wall, and is much quieter than a window unit.

Window Units
Window air conditioners are effective if you need to cool a specific area of your home. They will cost less to install than a central air-conditioning system. If you don’t have duct work, they might be your most practical choice. It is important to match the capacity of the window air conditioner with the size of the area to be cooled. Window units should either be covered in winter or, better still, removed to minimize heat loss.

Other Ways to Cool Your House

The following measures will help keep your home more comfortable:
Install ceiling fans to circulate air.
If you’re planning for the long term, plant trees that lose their leaves in the fall on the east, south and west sides of your house.
Close the blinds and drapes on south- and west-facing windows during sunny summer days to reduce heat gains.
Turn off lights and appliances when they are not in use.
Install awnings for patio doors and windows that face the sun.
Open windows in the evening and at night during the summer months.
Hot Water and How to Heat It

There are several water-heating options available to you. While you are taking steps to save on home heating, don’t forget to see what you can do to lower your water heating costs. Check with your fuel supplier for more information, and consider alternatives to your current method.

Storage-Type Water Heaters
Most homes have storage-type water heaters in which water in a tank is heated by a gas or oil burner, or by electric elements. Traditional storage heaters have been improved with such features as through-the-wall venting for combustion units, and better insulation, making them less expensive to operate. Units designed to give even greater efficiency are now available.

Instantaneous Water Heaters
Instantaneous water heaters, which heat water as needed and have no storage tank, are available, but not widely. They require little space, but they usually cost more than storage-type water heaters, and more than one unit might be required to meet your needs. For electric instantaneous water heaters, upgraded wiring is often necessary.

Integrated (Combination) Hot Water Systems
Systems that combine space heating and water heating are becoming more popular. Water can be heated with a boiler or a storage-tank water heater. The hot water can be used for space heating as well as domestic hot water needs. Space heating methods include baseboard radiators, in-floor radiant heating, and forced-air heating when piped to an air handler. Some of these systems can also be used for pool and spa heating, as well as snow-melting applications. Combo systems vary widely in efficiency and must be carefully designed to give satisfactory service.

Solar Water Heaters
With solar water heaters, energy from the sun is collected by solar panels and transferred by circulating fluids to a storage tank. These heaters are typically used with an electric water heater, or one fueled by oil, natural gas or propane, which acts as a back-up for overcast days. Solar collector panels can be mounted on any unobstructed roof, wall or ground frame that faces between southeast and southwest. Solar water heaters are designed to provide between 35% and 75% of your hot water needs, with the back-up providing the balance.
Replacing Your System

Review your options, consider the pros and cons of different equipment and fuels, and compare installation and operating costs. Now, it’s time to select a contractor. Here are some tips:

Look for a Registered Contractor
Your contractor will supply and install your equipment. Proper installation is essential for the safe, efficient and economical operation of your system. Electric equipment must be installed by a licensed electrician, and all electrical work should be inspected by an InterNACHI inspector.

Get Estimates from Several Contractors
Prices can vary significantly among contractors. Ask each firm for a written estimate covering the following items:
the total cost, and a listing of all necessary work, including improvements to the existing system, and the provision of combustion air, if applicable;
a heat loss/gain analysis;
the size and seasonal efficiency of the unit, and sound ratings, if applicable;
the responsibility of the contractor or homeowner for:
obtaining permits and paying related fees;
removing and disposing of old equipment;
arranging for such work as installation of gas supply; and
arranging for necessary inspections.
a work schedule and completion date
guarantees, warranties and service contracts;
terms of payment; and
evidence of an electrician’s licence, as appropriate.
Use costs (both installed and operating), work schedule, warranties and service as the basis for your decision. Ask the contractors you are considering for references, and follow up by contacting previous customers. Ask what they think about the contractor, fuel supplier, and the system options you are considering.

Choose the Right Equipment
In order to correctly size new heating and cooling equipment, your contractor must analyze how much heat is lost from your home in winter and gained in summer. Ask for this heat loss/gain analysis in writing, including the method used to perform the calculation. This calculation should take into consideration such factors as the size of the house, its level of insulation, and the condition of windows and doors. If the heat loss and gain is significant, and you haven’t already taken steps to increase the energy efficiency of the house, now is the time to do it.

Avoid the temptation to simply choose the same size equipment that already exists in your house without doing a heat loss/gain analysis. Your home has likely been altered over the years, and the system might even have been the wrong size at the start. An oversized unit will usually operate below peak efficiency, and both oversized and undersized units can adversely affect the comfort of your home. Any installation involving combustion equipment should include steps to ensure that there will be an adequate supply of air for combustion and venting, and that other air-exhausting equipment will not cause problems.

Changing Your Water Heater

Size is an important consideration when selecting new hot water equipment. A larger family is likely to use more hot water. A “downsized” household – for example, an older couple whose children have grown up and moved into their own homes – will no longer need a water heater meant to supply the needs of four or more people. By practicing water conservation – for example, by installing energy-efficient showerheads and aerators on taps, and using cold water in your washing machine – you can substantially reduce your hot water usage.

Steps to Installing a Hot Water Tank

Contact your local fuel supplier or contractor and ask for the efficiency ratings of the models you are considering. When you have selected a unit just big enough to meet your household needs, your fuel supplier or contractor can arrange for a qualified serviceperson to install the water heater. If you have an electric hot water tank, wrap it in an insulating blanket. Make sure the blanket is certified for use on your heater and is properly installed. Insulate both the hot and cold water lines of the tank, and consider installing a heat trap. Be careful not to insulate the pipes too closely to the flue of a fossil-fueled tank. Ask your fuel supplier about any water heating cost-saving programs they offer. Some suppliers do some of the work at little or no cost to you.

Glossary of Terms
Here is a quick overview of terms used in this guide that you’ll need to know as you gather information about your home heating and cooling options.

air-source heat pump: aheating-cooling unit that transfers heat in either direction between the air outside a home and the indoors.
air supply for combustion: the air that a furnace, boiler or space heater requires to burn fuel.
aquastat: a thermostat that controls the water temperature in a boiler.
boiler: the heating unit used with a hot water (hydronic) distribution system.
central air conditioner: a unit that cools an entire house by removing heat from the inside air and releasing it outside.
controls: devices, such as a thermostat, that regulate a heating or cooling system.
conventional gas furnace or boiler: a gas-heating unit with an annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) less than 70%. It exhausts through a masonry chimney (which should be lined), or metal “B"-vent.
cost-effective heating/cooling system: one that produces good value for money after all costs (purchase, installation, financing and energy charges) are considered.
distribution system: the components of a heating or cooling system that deliver warmed or cooled air, or warmed water, to the living space.
domestic hot water: hot water used for household purposes.
earth-energy system (ground source heat pump): a heat pump that transfers heat from the earth or groundwater in cold weather and transfers it to the house through an underground piping system for space heating, cooling or water heating. The process reverses in warm weather, and heat is discharged to the ground or water.
electrical resistance heating: heat produced by passing electricity through a resistor.
flame-retention head burner: a higher-efficiency burner in an oil furnace. It produces a hotter flame and operates with a lower air flow, thus reducing heat loss up the chimney.
fluorocarbon refrigerants: the fluids commonly used in refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment to create the cooling effect. These fluids can damage the environment.
forced air: a distribution system in which a fan circulates air from the heating or cooling unit to the rooms through a network of ducts.
fossil fuel: a naturally occurring carbon or hydrocarbon fuel, such as natural gas, propane and oil, formed by the decomposition of prehistoric organisms.
furnace: a heating unit that uses a forced-air distribution system.
ground-source heat pump: another term for an earth-energy system.
heat exchanger: a structure that transfers heat from one gas or liquid to another gas or liquid -- for example, the hot combustion gases in a furnace to the circulating household air or, in a boiler, to the circulating hot water.
heat-recovery ventilator (HRV): a device used in central ventilation systems to reduce the amount of heat that is lost as household air is replaced with outside air. As fresh air enters the house, it passes through a heat exchanger, heated by the warm outgoing air stream, and is pre-heated.
high-efficiency (condensing) furnace or boiler: a heating unit with an annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) of 90% or more. It has a second stainless steel heat exchanger that removes additional heat from exhaust gases. Water vapor condenses as the exhaust cools. The unit vents through a narrow plastic wall pipe instead of a chimney.
hydronic system: a distribution system in which hot water is circulated through a network of pipes to radiators, wall panels or an under-floor heating system.
installed cost: the total of the purchase price and the installation costs of equipment.
instantaneous water heater: a device that heats water as required, but does not store it. The unit is usually located near the point of use.
integrated (combo) hot water system: a system that provides both space and water heating from a single heat source.
kilowatt: a unit of electrical power used to measure the heating capacity of electric equipment. One kilowatt (kW) equals 1,000 watts (W).
mid-efficiency natural gas or propane furnace or boiler: a gas-heating unit with an annual fuel-utilization efficiency (AFUE) of 78% to 82%. Some models exhaust through the basement wall.
new oil furnace: efficiencies (AFUE) range from 78% to 86%; has flue gases that may be exhausted through a chimney or a side wall vent.
R-2000: a performance standard for new homes under a voluntary government/industry program. Builders meet the standard by offering an integrated package of features designed to meet the R-2000 requirements. The package includes high insulation levels, air-tightness, heat recovery ventilation, and efficient heating/cooling systems.
retrofit: replacement of one or more components of an existing system.
seasonal efficiency: a performance rating that considers the heat (or cool) actually delivered to the living space, the total energy available in the fuel consumed, and the impact the equipment itself has on the total heating or cooling load through an entire heating or cooling season. HSPF, AFUE, SEER and EF are seasonal efficiency ratings.
SEER: seasonal energy-efficiency ratio
setback thermostat: a programmable thermostat with a built-in timer. You can adjust it to vary household temperature automatically.
space heater: a heating unit that supplies heat directly to the room where it is located, and is not connected to a distribution system.
storage-type water heater: a tank that heats and stores hot water.
ton: a measure of the cooling capacity for central air conditioners and heat pumps.

Efficiency Ratings: AFUE, COP, HSPF, SEER & EER
Take a few moments to familiarize yourself with the efficiency ratings you’ll find on various pieces of equipment.

Boilers and Furnaces
Rating to look for: AFUE

The annual fuel-utilization efficiency (AFUE) of furnaces and boilers measures their performance over a typical heating season. It takes into account things such as on-and-off cycles and heat loss through the chimney or vent, and is the most useful furnace and boiler rating available. The higher the rating, the more efficient the unit.

There is a second efficiency rating for furnaces and boilers, and it is known as steady-state efficiency. It is higher than an AFUE rating, but it’s not as helpful. It measures the equipment’s performance after it has been running a short while, and after all components have reached their normal operating temperature. The steady-state efficiency of furnaces and boilers is determined by comparing the amount of heat that’s available in the fuel to the amount that is converted into usable heat, but it does not include off-cycle losses.

Wood-Burning Appliances
Advanced equipment which is certified as meeting the EPA or CSA-B415 emissions standards normally exceeds 60% and averages 70% efficiency. Conventional wood-burning appliances, which are not certified as low-emission, average 50% efficiency, with a range of 35% to 70%. Although some wood-burning equipment is specifically certified for efficiency, most is not. Also, most wood-burning appliances are manually operated, not automatic, so the practices of the operator will affect the efficiency actually achieved.

Heat Pumps
Ratings to look for: COP, HSPF

Earth-energy systems are rated for heating efficiency by comparing them to electric-resistance heat. The measurement used is its coefficient of performance, or COP, and is determined by dividing the heat output by the energy input. Since the COP of an electric-resistance heater is 1.0 – which means that the same amount of energy that goes into it as electricity comes out as heat – any rating higher than 1.0 means that, for the same amount of electricity going in, more heat comes out. Look for a COP of 3.1 or more.

The heating-efficiency rating for an air-source heat pump is called known as its heating seasonal-performance factor (HSPF). This is determined by dividing the total heat provided during the season (in BTU) by the total energy consumed by the system (in watt-hours). The higher the rating, the more efficient the heat pump is over the entire heating season. Look for an HSPF of more than 5.9.

Air Conditioners and Air-Source Heat Pumps
Ratings to look for: SEER

A SEER rating, which stands for seasonal energy-efficiency ratio, tells you the cooling energy efficiency of air conditioners and air-source heat pumps. The rating is determined by dividing the total cooling provided during the season (in BTU) by the total energy consumed by the system (in watt-hours). The higher the rating, the more energy-efficient the unit. SEERs for new central air conditioners and air-source heat pumps currently range from 10 to 17. For room air conditioners, the range is 8 to 12.

Earth-Energy Systems
Ratings to look for: EER

If you want to know how efficiently an earth-energy system can cool, look for the letters EER, which stand for energy-efficiency ratio. EER ratings are determined by dividing the cooling output of the ground or water-source heat pump (in BTUs per hour) by the power input (in watts). Look for an EER of at least 10.5.

Hot Water Equipment

Storage-Type Hot Water Heaters
An energy factor (EF) is used to rate the energy efficiency of storage-type hot water heaters. Both on-cycle efficiency and off-cycle losses are taken into account, which makes it a seasonal rating. The higher the EF, the more efficient the unit. You can expect to find the following energy factor ranges for new storage-type water heaters:
gas: 0.56 to 0.86;
electric: 0.87 to 0.98; and
oil: 0.53 to 0.68.
A storage-type water heater added to an earth-energy system will normally have an energy factor of 2.7 to 3.1.

In summary, homeowners can reduce their energy consumption by adopting the strategies offered in this guide..

Condensation in Double-Paned Windows

2009-12-07T20:14:00.003-08:00

Condensation is the accumulation of liquid water on relatively cold surfaces.

Almost all air contains water vapor, the gas phase of water composed of tiny water droplets. The molecules in warm air are far apart from one another and allow the containment of a relatively large quantity of water vapor. As air cools, its molecules get closer together and squeeze the tiny vapor droplets closer together as well. A critical temperature, known as dew point, exists where these water droplets will be forced so close together that they merge into visible liquid in a process called condensation.

Household air is humidified from high levels of water vapor in human and animal exhalation, plant transpiration, and fixtures such as showers and dryers. This humidity can rise significantly higher than outside air because of the insulative design of a house. Cold indoor surfaces can cool the surrounding air enough to force vapor to condense. This often happens on single-pane windows because they lack the necessary thermal insulation available to better windows. Double-pane windows have a layer of gas (usually argon or air) trapped between two panes of glass and should be insulated enough to prevent the accumulation of condensation. If this type of window appears misty or foggy, it means that its seal has failed and the window needs to be replaced.

Silica Desiccant
A desiccant is an absorptive material designed to maintain dryness within its vicinity. A common type of desiccant is silica gel, a porous plastic used to prevent spoilage in various food products. A tightly packed assortment of silica pellets is contained inside the aluminum perimeter strip of a window to dehumidify incoming household air that was not stopped by the window’s seal. If not for this substance, incoming air could condense on the glass.

Silica gel has an immense surface area, approximately 800 m²/g, which allows it to absorb water vapor for years. Eventually, the silica pellets will become saturated and will no longer be able to prevent condensation from forming. A double-paned window that appears foggy has failed and needs to be repaired or replaced.

Why Double-Paned Windows Fail - Solar (Thermal) Pumping
Although double-paned windows appear to be stable, they actually experience a daily cycle of expansion and contraction caused by “thermal pumping.” Sunlight heats the airspace between the panes and causes the gas there to heat up and pressurize. Expanding gas cannot leave the chamber between the panes and causes the glass to bulge outward during the day and contract at night to accommodate the changing pressures. This motion acts like the bellows of a forge, pumping minute amounts of air in and out of the airspace between the panes. Over time, the constant pressure fluctuations caused by thermal pumping will stress the seal and challenge its ability to prevent the flow of gas in and out of the window chamber. Incoming humid air has the potential to condense on the window surface, if it is cold enough.

Can Failed Windows be Repaired?
Inspectors should be aware that there are companies that claim to be able to repair misty windows through a process known as “defogging.”

This repair method proceeds in the following order:
A hole is drilled into the window, usually from the outside, and a cleaning solution is sprayed into the air chamber.
The solution and any other moisture are sucked out through a vacuum.
A defogger device is permanently inserted into the hole that will allow the release of moisture during thermal pumping.

Condensation appears between double-paned windows when the seal is compromised and removal of this water will not fix the seal itself. A window “repaired” in this manner, although absent of condensation, might not provide any additional insulation. This method is still fairly new and opinions about its effectiveness range widely. Regardless, “defogging” certainly allows for cosmetic improvement, which is of some value to homeowners. It also removes any potential damage caused by condensation in the form of mold or rot.

Window condensation will inevitably lead to irreversible physical window damage. This damage can appear in the following two ways:

Riverbedding – Condensed vapor between the glass panes will form droplets that run down the length of the window. Water that descends in this fashion has the tendency to follow narrow paths and carve grooves into the glass surface. These grooves are formed in a process similar to canyon formation.

Silica Haze – Once the silica gel has been saturated, it will be eroded by passing air currents and accumulate as white “snowflakes” on the window surface. It is believed that if this damage is present, the window must be replaced.

Thermal Imaging as a Detection Tool
The presence of condensation in double-paned windows means that they have failed, but the absence of condensation does not mean the window is functional. This latter fact is especially true in hot, dry environments, and when the temperature inside of a house is the same as the temperature outside. A method has recently developed that uses infrared (IR, thermal) imaging to provide a better determinant of faulty windows.

In summary, condensation in double-paned windows indicates that the window has failed and needs to be replaced. Condensation, while it can damage windows, is itself a symptom of a lack of integrity of the window’s seal. A failing seal will allow air to transfer in and out of the window even if it is firmly closed. Inspectors should be aware of this process and know when to recommend that clients’ windows be replaced.

Chinese Drywall

2009-12-07T20:14:00.001-08:00

Amidst a wave of Chinese import scares, ranging from toxic toys to tainted pet food, reports of contaminated drywall from that country have been popping up across the American Southeast. Chinese companies use unrefined “fly ash,” a coal residue found in smokestacks in coal-fired power plants in their manufacturing process. Fly ash contains strontium sulfide, a toxic substance commonly found in fireworks. In hot and wet environments, this substance can offgas into hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, and carbonyl sulfide and contaminate a home’s air supply.

The bulk of these incidents have been reported in Florida and other southern states, likely due to the high levels of heat and humidity in that region. Most of the affected homes were built during the housing boom between 2004 and 2007, especially in the wake of Hurricane Katrina when domestic building materials were in short supply. An estimated 250,000 tons of drywall were imported from China during that time period because it was cheap and plentiful. This material was used in the construction of approximately 100,000 homes in the United States, and many believe this has lead to serious health and property damage.Although not believed to be life- threatening, exposure to high levels of airborne hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds from contaminated drywall can result in the following physical ailments:

sore throat;
sinus irritation;
coughing;
wheezing;
headache;
dry or burning eyes; and/or
respiratory infections.

Due to this problem’s recent nature, there are currently no government or industry standards for inspecting contaminated drywall in homes. Professionals who have handled contaminated drywall in the past may know how to inspect for sulfur compounds but there are no agencies that offer certification in this form of inspection. Homeowners should beware of con artists attempting to make quick money off of this widespread scare by claiming to be licensed or certified drywall inspectors.

The following tips that inspectors can use to identify if a home’s drywall is contaminated:

The house has a strong sulfur smell reminiscent of rotten eggs.
Exposed copper wiring appears dark and corroded. Silver jewelry and silverware can become similarly corroded and discolored after several months of exposure.
A manufacturer’s label on the back of the drywall can be used to link it with manufacturers that are known to have used contaminated materials. One way to look for this is to enter the attic and remove some of the insulation.
Drywall samples can be sent to a lab to be tested for dangerous levels of sulfur. This is the best testing method but also the most expensive.

Contaminated Chinese drywall cannot be repaired. Affected homeowners are being forced to either suffer bad health and failing appliances due to wire corrosion or replace the drywall entirely, a procedure which can cost tens of thousands of dollars. This contamination further reduces home values in a real estate environment already plagued by crisis. Some insurance companies are refusing to pay for drywall replacement and many of their clients are facing financial ruin. Class-action lawsuits have been filed against homebuilders, suppliers, and importers of contaminated Chinese drywall. Some large manufacturers named in these lawsuits are Knauf Plasterboard Tianjin, Knauf Gips, and Taishan Gypsum.

The Florida Department of Health recently tested drywall from three Chinese manufacturers and a domestic sample and published their findings. They found “a distinct difference in drywall that was manufactured in the United States and those that were manufactured in China.” The Chinese samples contained traces of strontium sulfide and emitted a sulfur odor when exposed to moisture and intense heat, while the American sample did not. The U.S. Consumer Safety Commission is currently performing similar tests. Other tests performed by Lennar, a builder that used Chinese drywall in 80 Florida homes, and Knauf Plasterboard, a manufacturer of the drywall, came to different conclusions than the Florida Department of Health. Both found safe levels of sulfur compounds in the samples that they tested. There is currently no scientific proof that Chinese drywall is responsible for the allegations against it.

Regardless of its source, contamination of some sort is damaging property and health in the southern U.S. The media, who have publicized the issue, almost unanimously report that the blame lies with imported Chinese drywall that contains corrosive sulfur compounds originating from ash produced by Chinese coal-fired power plants. Homes affected by this contamination can suffer serious damage to the metal parts of appliances and piping and lead, potentially leading to considerable health issues. While no governing body has issued regulations regarding contaminated drywall, it is advisable that home inspectors be aware of the danger it poses and learn how to identify it.

Burglary Prevention

2009-12-07T20:13:00.002-08:00

Some interesting statistics concerning break-ins in the United States:
Theft makes up more than three-quarters of all reported crime.
In 2005, law enforcement agencies reported more than 2 million burglary offenses.

According to a survey, burglars enter homes through the following locations:
81% enter through the first floor;
34% of burglars enter through the front door;
23% enter through a first-floor window;
22% enter through the back door;
9% enter through the garage;
4% enter through the basement;
4% enter through an unlocked entrance;
2% enter through a storage area; and
2% enter through anywhere on the second floor.

Some interesting statistics concerning break-ins in Canada (2002):
The burglary rate in Canada, at 877 per 100,000 people, is seven times higher than that of the country with the fewest break-ins, Norway.

The burglary rate in Canada is slightly higher than that of the United States (at 746 per 100,000 people), but significantly less than the burglary rate in Australia, at 2,275 per 100,000 people.

Consider the following safety measures:

Exterior Doors
Doors should be made of steel or solid-core wood construction. Hollow-core wood doors are more easily broken than heavy, solid-core doors.
Doors should be free of signs of rot, cracks and warping.
Doors should be protected by quality deadbolt locks. Chain locks are not adequate substitutes for deadbolt locks, although chain locks may be used as additional protection.
If a mail slot is present, it should be equipped with a cage or box. Mail slots that are not equipped with cages or boxes have been used by burglars to enter homes. If no box or cage is present, burglars can insert a contraption made of wire and cord into the mail slot and use it to open the lock from the inside.
If a door is equipped with glass panes, they should be installed far from the lock. Otherwise, burglars can smash the glass and reach through the door to unlock the door.
Spare keys should not be hidden in obvious locations. Burglars are very good at finding keys you believe are cleverly hidden. The best place for a spare key is in the house of a trusted neighbor. If keys must be hidden near the door, don’t place them in obvious locations, such as under a doormat, rock or planter.
Install a peephole in doors so you can see who is on the doorstep before you open the door.
Consider installing bump-resistant locks. “Bumping” is a technique developed recently that can open almost any standard lock with less effort than is required by lock-picking. This technique uses "bump keys," which are normal keys with slight modifications. Lock companies such as Schlage Primus and Medeco manufacture a number of locks that offer some bump-resistance.

Pet Doors:

Pet doors can be used by burglars to enter homes. Some burglars have reached through pet doors in order to unlock the door. Don’t install a pet door, but if one is necessary, it should be as small as possible and installed far from the lock.
Another reason to forgo pet doors is that a crafty burglar may convince or coerce a small child to crawl through a pet door and unlock the door. Also, some burglars are children.
Electronic pet doors are available that open only when the pet, equipped with a signaling device in their collar, approaches the door. These doors are designed to keep stray animals out of the home, and may provide protection against burglars, as well.

Sliding Glass Doors:

They should be equipped with locks on their tops and bottoms.
They should not be able to be lifted from their frames.
A cut-off broom handle, or a similar device, can be laid into the door track to prevent it from being opened.

Illumination:

Lights should be installed on the exterior of all four sides of the house. Burglars prefer darkness so they cannot be seen by neighbors or passersby.
When you are not home, a few lights should be left on.
It is helpful to install exterior lights that are activated by motion sensors. Burglars that are suddenly illuminated may flee.

Windows:

All windows should be composed of strong glass, such as laminated glass, and be in good operating order.
Consider installing bars, grilles, grates or heavy-duty wire screening. Be aware that barred windows must be equipped with a quick-release mechanism so occupants can quickly escape during a fire.
Windows should not be hidden by landscaping or structures. If landscaping or structures cannot be moved, lighting can be installed around the windows.

Landscape and Yard:

Shrubs and trees should not obscure the view of entrances. Shielded entrances can provide cover for burglars while they attempt to enter the residence.
Fences are helpful burglar deterrents, although they should not be difficult to see through.

While the House is Vacant:

A loud radio can be used to make burglars think someone is home.
Timers can be used to activate radios and lights to make the home appear occupied.
A car should always be parked in the driveway. A neighbor’s car can be parked there so that it appears as if someone is home.
The lawn should be cut regularly. Uncut grass is a clue that no one is home.

Other Tips:

Dogs are excellent burglar deterrents. If you don't own a dog, place "Beware of Dog" signs around the yard for nearly the same effect.
If no security system is installed, you can post security alarm stickers around the yard anyway.

In summary, there are plenty of things you can do to reduce the chance that your home will be burglarized. .

Attached Garage Fire Hazards

2009-12-07T20:13:00.001-08:00

Attached Garage Fire Containment

2009-12-07T20:12:00.002-08:00

Asbestos

2009-12-07T20:12:00.001-08:00

What is Asbestos?

Asbestos is a mineral fiber that can be positively identified only with a special type of microscope. There are several types of asbestos fibers. In the past, asbestos was added to a variety of products to strengthen them and to provide heat insulation and fire resistance.

How Can Asbestos Affect My Health?

From studies of people who were exposed to asbestos in factories and shipyards, we know that breathing high levels of asbestos fibers can lead to an increased risk of lung cancer in the forms of mesothelioma, which is a cancer of the lining of the chest and the abdominal cavity, and asbestosis, in which the lungs become scarred with fibrous tissue.

The risk of lung cancer and mesothelioma increase with the number of fibers inhaled. The risk of lung cancer from inhaling asbestos fibers is also greater if you smoke. People who get asbestosis have usually been exposed to high levels of asbestos for a long time. The symptoms of these diseases do not usually appear until about 20 to 30 years after the first exposure to asbestos.
Most people exposed to small amounts of asbestos, as we all are in our daily lives, do not develop these health problems. However, if disturbed, asbestos material may release asbestos fibers, which can be inhaled into the lungs. The fibers can remain there for a long time, increasing the risk of disease. Asbestos material that would crumble easily if handled, or that has been sawed, scraped, or sanded into a powder, is more likely to create a health hazard.
Where Can I Find Asbestos and When Can it Be a Problem?

Most products made today do not contain asbestos. Those few products made which still contain asbestos that could be inhaled are required to be labeled as such. However, until the 1970s, many types of building products and insulation materials used in homes contained asbestos.

Common products that might have contained asbestos in the past, and conditions which may release fibers, include:

steam pipes, boilers and furnace ducts insulated with an asbestos blanket or asbestos paper tape. These materials may release asbestos fibers if damaged, repaired, or removed improperly;
resilient floor tiles (vinyl asbestos, asphalt and rubber), the backing on vinyl sheet flooring, and adhesives used for installing floor tile. Sanding tiles can release fibers, and so may scraping or sanding the backing of sheet flooring during removal;
cement sheet, millboard and paper used as insulation around furnaces and wood-burning stoves. Repairing or removing appliances may release asbestos fibers, and so may cutting, tearing, sanding, drilling, or sawing insulation;
door gaskets in furnaces, wood stoves and coal stoves. Worn seals can release asbestos fibers during use;
soundproofing or decorative material sprayed on walls and ceilings. Loose, crumbly or water-damaged material may release fibers, and so will sanding, drilling or scraping the material;
patching and joint compounds for walls and ceilings, and textured paints. Sanding, scraping, or drilling these surfaces may release asbestos fibers;
asbestos cement roofing, shingles and siding. These products are not likely to release asbestos fibers unless sawed, dilled or cut;
artificial ashes and embers sold for use in gas-fired fireplaces, and other older household products, such as fireproof gloves, stove-top pads, ironing board covers and certain hairdryers; and
automobile brake pads and linings, clutch facings and gaskets.

Where Asbestos Hazards May Be Found in the Home

Some roofing and siding shingles are made of asbestos cement.
Houses built between 1930 and 1950 may have asbestos as insulation.
Asbestos may be present in textured paint and in patching compounds used on wall and ceiling joints. Their use was banned in 1977.
Artificial ashes and embers sold for use in gas-fired fireplaces may contain asbestos.
Older products, such as stove-top pads, may have some asbestos compounds.
Walls and floors around wood-burning stoves may be protected with asbestos paper, millboard or cement sheets.
Asbestos is found in some vinyl floor tiles and the backing on vinyl sheet flooring and adhesives.
Hot water and steam pipes in older houses may be coated with an asbestos material or covered with an asbestos blanket or tape.
Oil and coal furnaces and door gaskets may have asbestos insulation.

What Should Be Done About Asbestos in the Home?

If you think asbestos may be in your home, don't panic. Usually, the best thing to do is to leave asbestos material that is in good condition alone. Generally, material in good condition will not release asbestos fibers. There is no danger unless the asbestos is disturbed and fibers are released and then inhaled into the lungs. Check material regularly if you suspect it may contain asbestos. Don't touch it, but look for signs of wear or damage, such as tears, abrasions or water damage. Damaged material may release asbestos fibers. This is particularly true if you often disturb it by hitting, rubbing or handling it, or if it is exposed to extreme vibration or air flow. Sometimes, the best way to deal with slightly damaged material is to limit access to the area and not touch or disturb it. Discard damaged or worn asbestos gloves, stove-top pads and ironing board covers. Check with local health, environmental or other appropriate agencies to find out proper handling and disposal procedures. If asbestos material is more than slightly damaged, or if you are going to make changes in your home that might disturb it, repair or removal by a professional is needed. Before you have your house remodeled, find out whether asbestos materials are present.

How to Identify Materials that Contain Asbestos

You can't tell whether a material contains asbestos simply by looking at it, unless it is labeled. If in doubt, treat the material as if it contains asbestos, or have it sampled and analyzed by a qualified professional. A professional should take samples for analysis, since a professional knows what to look for, and because there may be an increased health risk if fibers are released. In fact, if done incorrectly, sampling can be more hazardous than leaving the material alone. Taking samples yourself is not recommended. If you nevertheless choose to take the samples yourself, take care not to release asbestos fibers into the air or onto yourself. Material that is in good condition and will not be disturbed (by remodeling, for example) should be left alone. Only material that is damaged or will be disturbed should be sampled. Anyone who samples asbestos-containing materials should have as much information as possible on the handling of asbestos before sampling and, at a minimum, should observe the following procedures:

Make sure no one else is in the room when sampling is done.
Wear disposable gloves or wash hands after sampling.
Shut down any heating or cooling systems to minimize the spread of any released fibers.
Do not disturb the material any more than is needed to take a small sample.
Place a plastic sheet on the floor below the area to be sampled.
Wet the material using a fine mist of water containing a few drops of detergent before taking the sample. The water/detergent mist will reduce the release of asbestos fibers.
Carefully cut a piece from the entire depth of the material using a small knife, corer or other sharp object.
Place the small piece into a clean container (a 35-mm film canister, small glass or plastic vial, or high-quality resealable plastic bag).
Tightly seal the container after the sample is in it.
Carefully dispose of the plastic sheet. Use a damp paper towel to clean up any material on the outside of the container or around the area sampled. Dispose of asbestos materials according to state and local procedures.
Label the container with an identification number and clearly state when and where the sample was taken.
Patch the sampled area with the smallest possible piece of duct tape to prevent fiber release.

Send the sample to an asbestos analysis laboratory accredited by the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Your state or local health department may also be able to help.
How to Manage an Asbestos Problem

If the asbestos material is in good shape and will not be disturbed, do nothing! If it is a problem, there are two types of corrections: repair and removal. Repair usually involves either sealing or covering asbestos material. Sealing (encapsulation) involves treating the material with a sealant that either binds the asbestos fibers together or coats the material so that fibers are not released. Pipe, furnace and boiler insulation can sometimes be repaired this way. This should be done only by a professional trained to handle asbestos safely. Covering (enclosure) involves placing something over or around the material that contains asbestos to prevent the release of fibers. Exposed insulated piping may be covered with a protective wrap or jacket. With any type of repair, the asbestos remains in place. Repair is usually cheaper than removal, but it may make removal of asbestos later (if found to be necessary) more difficult and costly. Repairs can either be major or minor. Major repairs must be done only by a professional trained in methods for safely handling asbestos. Minor repairs should also be done by professionals, since there is always a risk of exposure to fibers when asbestos is disturbed.

Repairs

Doing minor repairs yourself is not recommended, since improper handling of asbestos materials can create a hazard where none existed. If you nevertheless choose to do minor repairs, you should have as much information as possible on the handling of asbestos before doing anything. Contact your state or local health department or regional EPA office for information about asbestos training programs in your area. Your local school district may also have information about asbestos professionals and training programs for school buildings. Even if you have completed a training program, do not try anything more than minor repairs. Before undertaking minor repairs, carefully examine the area around the damage to make sure it is stable. As a general rule, any damaged area which is bigger than the size of your hand is not considered a minor repair.

Before undertaking minor repairs, be sure to follow all the precautions described previously for sampling asbestos material. Always wet the asbestos material using a fine mist of water containing a few drops of detergent. Commercial products designed to fill holes and seal damaged areas are available. Small areas of material, such as pipe insulation, can be covered by wrapping a special fabric, such as re-wettable glass cloth, around it. These products are available from stores (listed in the telephone directory under "Safety Equipment and Clothing") which specialize in asbestos materials and safety items.

Removal is usually the most expensive method and, unless required by state or local regulations, should be the last option considered in most situations. This is because removal poses the greatest risk of fiber release. However, removal may be required when remodeling or making major changes to your home that will disturb asbestos material. Also, removal may be called for if asbestos material is damaged extensively and cannot be otherwise repaired. Removal is complex and must be done only by a contractor with special training. Improper removal may actually increase the health risks to you and your family.

Asbestos Professionals: Who Are They and What Can They Do?

Asbestos professionals are trained in handling asbestos material. The type of professional will depend on the type of product and what needs to be done to correct the problem. You may hire a general asbestos contractor or, in some cases, a professional trained to handle specific products containing asbestos.

Asbestos professionals can conduct home inspections, take samples of suspected material, assess its condition, and advise on the corrections that are needed, as well as who is qualified to make these corrections. Once again, material in good condition need not be sampled unless it is likely to be disturbed. Professional correction or abatement contractors repair and remove asbestos materials.

Some firms offer combinations of testing, assessment and correction. A professional hired to assess the need for corrective action should not be connected with an asbestos-correction firm. It is better to use two different firms so that there is no conflict of interest. Services vary from one area to another around the country.

The federal government offers training courses for asbestos professionals around the country. Some state and local governments also offer or require training or certification courses. Ask asbestos professionals to document their completion of federal or state-approved training. Each person performing work in your home should provide proof of training and licensing in asbestos work, such as completion of EPA-approved training. State and local health departments or EPA regional offices may have listings of licensed professionals in your area.

If you have a problem that requires the services of asbestos professionals, check their credentials carefully. Hire professionals who are trained, experienced, reputable and accredited -- especially if accreditation is required by state or local laws. Before hiring a professional, ask for references from previous clients. Find out if they were satisfied. Ask whether the professional has handled similar situations. Get cost estimates from several professionals, as the charges for these services can vary.

Though private homes are usually not covered by the asbestos regulations that apply to schools and public buildings, professionals should still use procedures described in federal or state-approved training. Homeowners should be alert to the chance of misleading claims by asbestos consultants and contractors. There have been reports of firms incorrectly claiming that asbestos materials in homes must be replaced. In other cases, firms have encouraged unnecessary removal or performed it improperly. Unnecessary removal is a waste of money. Improper removal may actually increase the health risks to you and your family. To guard against this, know what services are available and what procedures and precautions are needed to do the job properly.

In addition to general asbestos contractors, you may select a roofing, flooring or plumbing contractor trained to handle asbestos when it is necessary to remove and replace roofing, flooring, siding or asbestos-cement pipe that is part of a water system. Normally, roofing and flooring contractors are exempt from state and local licensing requirements because they do not perform any other asbestos-correction work.

Asbestos-containing automobile brake pads and linings, clutch facings and gaskets should be repaired and replaced only by a professional using special protective equipment. Many of these products are now available without asbestos.

Make sure an inspecting firm makes frequent site visits if it is hired to assure that a contractor follows proper procedures and requirements. The inspector may recommend and perform checks after the correction to assure that the area has been properly cleaned.

If you hire a corrective-action contractor:
Check with your local air pollution control board, the local agency responsible for worker safety, and the Better Business Bureau. Ask if the firm has had any safety violations. Find out if there are legal actions filed against it.

Insist that the contractor use the proper equipment to do the job. The workers must wear approved respirators, gloves and other protective clothing.

Before work begins, get a written contract specifying the work plan, cleanup, and the applicable federal, state and local regulations which the contractor must follow (such as notification requirements and asbestos disposal procedures). Contact your state and local health departments, EPA regional office, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's regional office to find out what the regulations are. Be sure the contractor follows local asbestos removal and disposal laws. At the end of the job, get written assurance from the contractor that all procedures have been followed.

Assure that the contractor avoids spreading or tracking asbestos dust into other areas of your home. They should seal off the work area from the rest of the house using plastic sheeting and duct tape, and also turn off the heating and air conditioning system. For some repairs, such as pipe insulation removal, plastic bags may be adequate. They must be sealed with tape and properly disposed of when the job is complete.

Make sure the work site is clearly marked as a hazardous area. Do not allow household members or pets into the area until work is completed.
Insist that the contractor apply a wetting agent to the asbestos material with a hand sprayer that creates a fine mist before removal. Wet fibers do not float in the air as easily as dry fibers and will be easier to clean up.

Make sure the contractor does not break removed material into smaller pieces. This could release asbestos fibers into the air. Pipe insulation was usually installed in pre-formed blocks and should be removed in complete pieces.

Upon completion, assure that the contractor cleans the area well with wet mops, wet rags, sponges and/or HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air) vacuum cleaners. A regular vacuum cleaner must never be used. Wetting helps reduce the chance of spreading asbestos fibers in the air. All asbestos materials and disposable equipment and clothing used in the job must be placed in sealed, leakproof, and labeled plastic bags. The work site should be visually free of dust and debris. Air monitoring (to make sure there is no increase of asbestos fibers in the air) may be necessary to assure that the contractor's job is done properly. This should be done by someone not connected with the contractor.

Caution!
Do not dust, sweep or vacuum debris that may contain asbestos. These actions will disturb tiny asbestos fibers and may release them into the air. Remove dust by wet-mopping or with a special HEPA vacuum cleaner used by trained asbestos contractors.

10 Easy Ways to Save Energy in Your Home

2009-12-07T20:11:00.000-08:00

Knob-and-Tube Wiring

2009-12-07T14:23:00.000-08:00

Knob-and-tube (K&T) wiring was an early standardized method of electrical wiring in buildings, in common use in North America from about 1880 to the 1940s. The system is considered obsolete and can be a safety hazard, although some of the fear associated with it is undeserved.

Facts About Knob-and-Tube Wiring:

It is not inherently dangerous. The dangers from this system arise from its age, improper modifications, and situations where building insulation envelops the wires.
It has no ground wire and thus cannot service any three-pronged appliances.
While it is considered obsolete, there is no code that requires its complete removal.
It is treated differently in different jurisdictions. In some areas, it must be removed at all accessible locations, while others merely require that it not be installed in new construction. Inspectors should be sure to know the codes in the jurisdictions in which they operate.
It is not permitted in any new construction.

How Knob-and-Tube Wiring Works:

K&T wiring consists of insulated copper conductors passing through lumber framing drill-holes via protective porcelain insulating tubes. They are supported along their length by nailed-down porcelain knobs. Where wires enter a wiring device, such as a lamp or switch, or were pulled into a wall, they are protected by flexible cloth or rubber insulation called "loom."

Advantages of Knob-and-Tube Wiring:

K&T wiring has a higher ampacity than wiring systems of the same gauge. The reason for this is that the hot and neutral wires are separated from one another, usually by 4 to 6 inches, which allows the wires to readily dissipate heat into free air.
K&T wires are less likely than Romex cables to be punctured by nails because K&T wires are held away from the framing.
The porcelain components have an almost unlimited lifespan.
The original installation of knob-and-tube wiring is often superior to that of modern Romex wiring. K&T wiring installation requires more skill to install than Romex and, for this reason, unskilled people rarely ever installed it.

Problems Associated with K&T Wiring:

Unsafe modifications are far more common with K&T wiring than they are with Romex and other modern wiring systems. Part of the reason for this is that K&T is so old that more opportunity has existed for improper modifications.
The insulation that envelopes the wiring is a fire hazard.
It tends to stretch and sag over time.
It lacks a grounding conductor. Grounding conductors reduce the chance of electrical fire and damage to sensitive equipment.
In older systems, wiring is insulated with varnish and fiber materials that are susceptible to deterioration.

Compared with modern wiring insulation, K&T wiring is less resistant to damage. K&T wiring insulated with cambric and asbestos is not rated for moisture exposure. Older systems contained insulation with additives that may oxidize copper wire. Bending the wires may cause insulation to crack and peel away.

K&T wiring is often spliced with modern wiring incorrectly by amateurs. This is perhaps due to the ease by which K&T wiring is accessed.

Building Insulation:

K&T wiring is designed to dissipate heat into free air, and insulation will disturb this process. Insulation around K&T wires will cause heat to build up, and this creates a fire hazard. The 2008 National Electrical Code (NEC) requires that this wiring system not be covered by insulation. Specifically, it states that this wiring system should not be in…
hollow spaces of walls, ceilings and attics where such spaces are insulated by loose, rolled or foamed-in-place insulating material that envelops the conductors.

Local jurisdictions may or may not adopt the NEC’s requirement. The California Electrical Code, for instance, allows insulation to be in contact with knob-and-tube wiring, provided that certain conditions are met, such as, but not limited to, the following:

A licensed electrical contractor must certify that the system is safe.
The certification must be filed with the local building department.
Accessible areas where insulation covers the wiring must be posted with a warning sign. In some areas, this sign must be in Spanish and English.
The insulation must be non-combustible and non-conductive.
Normal requirements for insulation must be met.

Modifications:

When K&T wiring was first introduced, common household electrical appliances were limited to little more than toasters, tea kettles, coffee percolators and
clothes irons. The electrical requirements of mid- to late-20th century homes
could not have been foreseen during the late 18th century, a time during which electricity, to many, was seen as a passing fad. Existing K&T systems are notorious for modifications made in an attempt to match the increasing amperage loads required by televisions, refrigerators, and a plethora of other electric appliances. Many of these attempts were made by insufficiently trained handymen, rather than experienced electricians, whose work made the wiring system vulnerable to overloading.

Many homeowners adapted to the inadequate amperage of K&T wiring by installing fuses with resistances that were too high for the wiring. The result of this modification is that the fuses would not blow as often and the wiring would suffer heat damage due to excessive amperage loads.
It is not uncommon for inspectors to find connections wrapped with masking tape or Scotch tape instead of electrical tape.

K&T Wiring and Insurance:

Many insurance companies refuse to insure houses that have knob-and-tube wiring due to the risk of fire. Exceptions are sometimes made for houses where an electrical contractor has deemed the system to be safe.

Advice for those with K&T wiring:

Have the system evaluated by a qualified electrician. Only an expert can confirm that the system was installed and modified correctly.
Do not run an excessive amount of appliances in the home, as this can cause a fire.
Where the wiring is brittle or cracked, it should be replaced. Proper maintenance is crucial.
K&T wiring should not be used in kitchens, bathrooms, laundry rooms or outdoors. Wiring must be grounded in order to be used safely in these locations.
Rewiring a house can take weeks and cost thousands of dollars, but unsafe wiring can cause fires, complicate estate transactions, and make insurers skittish.
Homeowners should carefully consider their options before deciding whether to rewire their house.
The homeowner or an electrician should carefully remove any insulation that is found surrounding K&T wires.
Prospective home buyers should get an estimate of the cost of replacing K&T wiring. They can use this amount to negotiate a cheaper price for the house.

In summary, knob-and-tube wiring is likely to be a safety hazard due to improper modifications and the addition of building insulation. Inspectors need to be wary of this old system and be prepared to inform their clients about its potential dangers.

Aluminum Wiring

2009-12-07T14:16:00.000-08:00

On April, 28, 1974, two people were killed in a house fire in Hampton Bays, New York. Fire officials determined that the fire was caused by a faulty aluminum wire connection at an outlet.
According to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), "Homes wired with aluminum wire manufactured before 1972 ['old technology' aluminum wire] are 55 times more likely to have one or more connections reach "Fire Hazard Conditions" than is a home wired with copper."

Aluminum as a Metal

Aluminum possesses certain qualities that, compared with copper, make it an undesirable material as an electrical conductor. These qualities all lead to loose connections, where fire hazards become likely. These qualities are as follows:

Higher electrical resistance. Aluminum has a high resistance to electrical current flow, which means that, given the same amperage, aluminum conductors must be of a larger diameter than would be required by copper conductors.
Less ductile. Aluminum will fatigue and break down more readily when subjected to bending and other forms of abuse than copper, which is more ductile. Fatigue will cause the wire to break down internally and will increasingly resist electrical current, leading to a buildup of excessive heat.
Galvanic corrosion. In the presence of moisture, aluminum will undergo galvanic corrosion when it comes into contact with certain dissimilar metals.
Oxidation. Exposure to oxygen in the air causes deterioration to the outer surface of the wire. This process is called oxidation. Aluminum wire is more easily oxidized than copper wire, and the compound formed by this process – aluminum oxide – is less conductive than copper oxide. As time passes, oxidation can deteriorate connections and present a fire hazard.
Greater malleability. Aluminum is soft and malleable, meaning it is highly sensitive to compression. After a screw has been over-tightened on aluminum wiring, for instance, the wire will continue to deform or “flow” even after the tightening has ceased. This deformation will create a loose connection and increase electrical resistance in that location.
Greater thermal expansion and contraction. Even more than copper, aluminum expands and contracts with changes in temperature. Over time, this process will cause connections between the wire and the device to degrade. For this reason, aluminum wires should never be inserted into the “stab,” “bayonet” or “push-in” type terminations found on the back of many light switches and outlets.
Excessive vibration. Electrical current vibrates as it passes through wiring. This vibration is more extreme in aluminum than it is in copper, and, as time passes, it can cause connections to loosen.

Identifying Aluminum Wiring

Aluminum wires are the color of aluminum and are easily discernible from copper and other metals.
Since the early 1970s, wiring-device binding terminals for use with aluminum wire have been marked CO/ALR, which stands for “copper/aluminum revised."
Look for the word "aluminum" or the initials "AL" on the plastic wire jacket. Where wiring is visible, such as in the attic or electrical panel, inspectors can look for printed or embossed letters on the plastic wire jacket. Aluminum wire may have the word "aluminum," or a specific brand name, such as "Kaiser Aluminum," marked on the wire jacket. Where labels are hard to read, a light can be shined along the length of the wire.
When was the house built? Homes built or expanded between 1965 and 1973 are more likely to have aluminum wiring than houses built before or after those years.

Options for Correction

Aluminum wiring should be evaluated by a qualified electrician who is experienced inevaluating and correcting aluminum wiring problems. Not all licensed electricians are properly trained to deal with defective aluminum wiring. The CPSC recommends the following two methods for correction for aluminum wiring:

Rewire the home with copper wire. While this is the most effective method, rewiring is expensive and impractical, in most cases.
Use copalum crimps. The crimp connector repair consists of attaching a piece of copper wire to the existing aluminum wire branch circuit with a specially designed metal sleeve and powered crimping tool. This special connector can be properly installed only with the matching AMP tool. An insulating sleeve is placed around the crimp connector to complete the repair. Although effective, they are expensive (typically around $50 per outlet, switch or light fixture).

Although not recommended by the CPSC as methods of permanent repair for defective aluminum wiring, the following methods may be considered:

Application of anti-oxidant paste. This method can be used for wires that are multi-stranded or wires that are too large to be effectively crimped.
Pigtailing. This method involves attaching a short piece of copper wire to the aluminum wire with a twist-on connector. the copper wire is connected to the switch, wall outlet or other termination device. This method is only effective if the connections between the aluminum wires and the copper pigtails are extremely reliable. Pigtailing with some types of connectors, even though Underwriters Laboratories might presently list them for the application, can lead to increasing the hazard. Also, beware that pigtailing will increase the number of connections, all of which must be maintained. Aluminum Wiring Repair (AWR), Inc., of Aurora, Colorado, advises that pigtailing can be useful as a temporary repair or in isolated applications, such as the installation of a ceiling fan.
CO/ALR connections. According to the CPSC, these devices cannot be used for all parts of the wiring system, such as ceiling-mounted light fixtures or permanently wired appliances and, as such, CO/ALR connections cannot constitute a complete repair. Also, according to AWR, these connections often loosen over time.
Alumiconn. Although AWR believes this method may be an effective temporary fix, they are wary that it has little history, and that they are larger than copper crimps and are often incorrectly applied.
Replace certain failure-prone types of devices and connections with others that are more compatible with aluminum wire.
Remove the ignitable materials from the vicinity of the connections.
In summary, aluminum wiring can be a fire hazard due to inherent qualities of the metal. Inspectors should be capable of identifying this type of wiring.

Two Prong Electrical Outlets

2009-12-07T13:54:00.000-08:00

How old is your home?

If it was built prior to 1965, chances are that it has a two-wire electrical system. And chances are that if it has a two wire electrical system, all or most of the old two-hole receptacles have been replaced. And if it has new three-conductor receptacles, chances are that an inspector is going to write it up. Why?

Why should it matter how many holes the receptacles have?

It's a good question that requires a bit of background in order to provide an accurate answer.

Before the mid-60's, two-wire, ungrounded electrical systems were the norm. These systems used ungrounded two-hole receptacles because there wasn't any ground conductor to attach a third hole to. Beginning in the mid-60's three-wire, grounded electrical systems began to appear in single family residences. These systems utilized a dedicated ground conductor which was connected to the third hole in grounded receptacles

Skip to today. Computers, televisions, kitchen appliances, clocks, radios, cable boxes and just about everything else use a 3-conductor plug that is not compatible with the old 2-hole receptacles. So, well-meaning homeowners replace the original receptacles with modern 3-conductor outlets in order to be able to function normally. If they don't replace the receptacles outright, they may just install those neat little adapters that provide a hole for the ground conductor. This is where we run into a problem.

Besides the fact that many electronic devices may require a proper ground to function correctly, many times the ground of the new receptacle is tied to the white (neutral) wire, a condition called a "bootleg ground." If the appliance has a metal housing or controls, a bootleg ground can cause the housing or switches to carry current. This of course means that you can come into contact with current, otherwise known as being shocked.

Adapters aren't any better. Even though they can be connected to the receptacle with a screw, they are still not grounded, so the same equipment function problems remain. What's worse is that most people think that these adapters provide a proper ground. They don't. If there's no ground conductor then there's no ground, period. No adapter, receptacle or power strip is going to change that.

So what's the solution - does the house need to be re-wired?First off, the house does not have to be re-wired!

There's nothing inherently wrong or unsafe with older two-wire electrical systems. Millions upon millions of homes were built using the system, and many of those are still in use. Even if the electrical utility and panel are updated, it's very expensive to retrofit an entire house to a 3-wire grounded service.

The good news is that there is a safe and acceptable way to install modern 3-hole receptacles on a two-wire system. A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) may be installed to provide this function. GFCI outlets or breakers can be used to provide this protection, outlets are the lowest cost method.

Option A - have an electrician install a GFCI breaker.
Option B - (most economical) have an electrician identify the first outlet on each circuit and replace that outlet with a GFCI receptacle.

When either of these methods are used each protected or downstream receptacle must be labeled as "GFCI Protected, Ungrounded".

It's important to understand that these methods do not provide a ground, so there may still be equipment issues. It does, however, provide a safe and acceptable method of adding modern 3-hole receptacles to an existing system.

Maintaining Your Water Heater

2009-12-07T13:52:00.000-08:00

Most people don’t give any thought to their water heater—they just turn on the faucet and expect hot water to come out. Keep your water heater in peak operating condition by performing some simple routine maintenance.

One step you can take is to drain your tank. How often you need to do this depends upon the sediment buildup you are getting in your tank. Some experts recommend draining once a year. I recommend draining your tank once, and checking sediment buildup. Check it six months or a year later and compare the amount of build up to your previous amount. This will give you an idea on how often you need to drain your tank. If you have more sediment, you would want to drain more often. Less sediment, drain less often. Come up with a good schedule, that will keep your sediment build up to a minimum.

To drain the tank:

Turn off the power source to the water heater. You do not want it to heat while empty. This is very important. Failure to do so may cause damage to the water heater.
Turn off the water supply to the tank.
Locate the drain valve at the bottom of the tank. Looks like a hose spigot.
Connect a hose to this and place the hose in a basement drain or sump.
If this is the first time you are draining, I recommend running the water through a strainer to judge sediment build up. If you already know your level, continue to the next step.
Open the drain valve at the bottom of the water heater.
Most experts recommend draining 3/4 of the water from the tank. If this is the first time I recommend a complete flush.
Close valve and fill tank.
Once tank is full turn power source to tank back on.

If you notice lots of sediment at the end of the draining process, you may have to do this several times to clear out the build up. This is common if this is the first time a unit has been drained in quite a while. Good luck!

Dryer Vent Safety

2009-12-07T13:47:00.000-08:00

Clothes dryers evaporate the water from wet clothing by blowing hot air past them while they tumble inside a spinning drum. Heat is provided by an electrical heating element or gas burner. Some heavy garment loads can contain more than a gallon of water, which during the drying process will become airborne water vapor and leave the dryer and home through an exhaust duct (more commonly known as a dryer vent).

A vent that exhausts moist air to the home exterior has a number of requirements:

It should be connected. The connection is usually behind the dryer but may be beneath it. Look carefully to make sure it’s actually connected!
It should not be restricted. Dryer vents are often made from flexible plastic or metal duct, which may be easily kinked or crushed where they exit the dryer and enter the wall or floor. This is often a problem since dryers tend to be tucked away into small areas with little room to work. Vent hardware is available which is designed to turn 90° in a limited space without restricting the flow of exhaust air. Restrictions should be noted in the inspector's report. Airflow restrictions are a potential fire hazard!
One of the reasons that restrictions are a potential fire hazard is that along with water vapor evaporated out of wet clothes, the exhaust stream carries lint – highly flammable particles of clothing made of cotton and polyester. Lint can accumulate in an exhaust duct, reducing the dryer’s ability to expel heated water vapor, which then accumulates as heat energy within the machine. As the dryer overheats, mechanical failures can trigger sparks, which can cause lint trapped in the dryer vent to burst into flames.
This condition can cause the whole house to burst into flames! Fires generally originate within the dryer but spread by escaping through the ventilation duct, incinerating trapped lint and following its path into the building wall.

House fires caused by dryers are far more common than generally believed, a fact that can be appreciated upon reviewing statistics from the National Fire Protection Agency. Fires caused by dryers in 2005 were responsible for approximately 13,775 house fires, 418 injuries, 15 deaths, and $196 million in property damage. Most of these incidents occur in residences and are the result of improper lint cleanup and maintenance. Fortunately, these fires are very easy to prevent.

The recommendations outlined below reflect International Residential Code (IRC) SECTION M1502 CLOTHES DRYER EXHAUST guidelines:

M1502.5 Duct construction.
Exhaust ducts shall be constructed of minimum 0.016-inch-thick (0.4 mm) rigid metal ducts, having smooth interior surfaces with joints running in the direction of air flow. Exhaust ducts shall not be connected with sheet-metal screws or fastening means which extend into the duct.
This means that the flexible, ribbed vents used in the past should no longer be used. They should be noted as a potential fire hazard if observed during an inspection.

M1502.6 Duct length.

The maximum length of a clothes dryer exhaust duct shall not exceed 25 feet (7620 mm) from the dryer location to the wall or roof termination. The maximum length of the duct shall be reduced 2.5 feet (762 mm) for each 45-degree (0.8 rad) bend and 5 feet (1524 mm) for each 90-degree (1.6 rad) bend. The maximum length of the exhaust duct does not include the transition duct.
This means that vents should also be as straight as possible and cannot be longer than 25 feet. Any 90° turns in the vent reduce this 25-foot number by 5 feet since these turns restrict airflow.

A couple of exceptions exist:

The IRC will defer to the manufacturer’s instruction, so if the manufacturer’s recommendation permits a longer exhaust vent, that’s acceptable. An inspector probably won’t have the manufacturer’s recommendations, and even if they do, confirming compliance with them exceeds the scope of a General Home Inspection.
The IRC will allow large radius bends to be installed to reduce restrictions at turns, but confirming compliance requires performing engineering calculation in accordance with the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, which definitely lies beyond the scope of a General Home Inspection!

M1502.2 Duct termination.
Exhaust ducts shall terminate on the outside of the building or shall be in accordance with the dryer manufacturer’s installation instructions. Exhaust ducts shall terminate not less than 3 feet (914 mm) in any direction from openings into buildings. Exhaust duct terminations shall be equipped with a backdraft damper. Screens shall not be installed at the duct termination.

Inspectors will see many dryer vents terminate in crawlspaces or attics where they deposit moisture, which can encourage the growth of mold, wood decay, or other material problems. Sometimes they will terminate just beneath attic ventilators. This is a defective installation. They must terminate at the exterior and away from a door or window! Also, screens may be present at the duct termination and can accumulate lint and should be noted as improper.

M1502.3 Duct size.
The diameter of the exhaust duct shall be as required by the clothes dryer’s listing and the manufacturer’s installation instructions.
Look for the exhaust duct size on the data plate.

M1502.4 Transition ducts.
Transition ducts shall not be concealed within construction. Flexible transition ducts used to connect the dryer to the exhaust duct system shall be limited to single lengths, not to exceed 8 feet (2438 mm) and shall be listed and labeled in accordance with UL 2158A.
In general, a home inspector will not know specific manufacturer’s recommendations or local applicable codes and will no be able to confirm the dryer vent's compliance to them, but will be able to point out issues that may need to be corrected

Bathroom Ventilation Ducts and Fans

2009-12-07T13:39:00.000-08:00

Fan Function
Bathroom ventilation systems are designed to exhaust odors and moist air to the home exterior. Typical systems consist of a ceiling fan unit connected to a duct that terminates at the roof. The fan may be controlled in one of several ways:

Most are controlled by a conventional wall switch
A timer switch may be mounted on the wall
A wall-mounted humidistat can be pre-set to turn the fan on and off based on different levels of relative humidity

Newer fans may be very quiet but work just fine. Older fans may be very noisy or very quiet. If an older fan is quiet, it may not be working well. Inspectors can test for adequate fan airflow with a chemical smoke pencil or a powder puff bottle but such tests exceed the state of Oklahoma’s Standards of Practice.

Bathroom ventilation fans should be inspected for dust buildup that can impede airflow. Particles of moisture-laden animal dander and lint are attracted to the fan because of its static charge. Inspectors should comment on dirty fan covers.

Ventilation systems should be installed in all bathrooms. This includes bathrooms with windows since windows will not be opened during the winter in cold climates.

Defects;The following conditions indicate insufficient bathroom ventilation:

Moisture stains on walls or ceilings
Corrosion of metal
Visible mold on walls or ceilings
Peeling paint or wallpaper
Frost on windows
High levels of humidity

The most common defect related to bathroom ventilation systems is improper termination of the duct. Vents must terminate at the home exterior. The most common improper terminations locations are:

Mid-level in the attic. These are easy to spot.
Beneath the insulation. You need to remember to look. The duct may terminate beneath the insulation or there may be no duct installed.
Beneath attic vents. The duct must terminate at the home exterior, not just beneath it.

Improperly terminated ventilation systems may appear to work fine from inside the bathroom… you have to look in the attic or on the roof. Sometimes poorly-installed ducts will loosen or become disconnected at joints or connections.

Ducts which leak or terminate in attics can cause problems from condensation. Warm, moist air will condense on cold attic framing, insulation or other materials. This condition has the potential to cause health or decay problems from mold or to damage materials such as drywall. Moisture also reduces the effectiveness of thermal insulation.

Mold
Perhaps the most serious consequence of an improper ventilation setup is the potential accumulation of mold in attics or crawl spaces. Mold may appear as a fuzzy, thread-like, cobwebby fungus although it can never be identified with certainty without being lab tested. Health problems caused by mold are related to high concentrations of spores in indoor air. “Spores” are like microscopic seeds, released by mold fungi when they reproduce. Every home has mold. Moisture levels of about 20% in materials will cause mold colonies to grow. Inhaling mold spores can cause health problems in those with asthma or allergies and can cause serious or fatal fungal infections in those with lung disease or compromised immune systems.

Mold is impossible to identify visually and must be tested by a lab in order to be confidently labeled. Inspectors should refrain from calling anything “mold” but should refer to anything that appears as mold as a material that “appears to be microbial growth”. Inspectors should include in their report and in the inspection agreement signed by the client a disclaimer clearly stating that the General Home Inspection is an inspection for safety and system defects, not a mold inspection.

Decay, which is rot, is also caused by fungi. Incipient (early) decay cannot be seen. By the time decay becomes visible, wood may have lost up to 50% of its strength.

In order to grow, mold fungi require that the following conditions are present:

Oxygen
Temperatures between approximately 45° F and 85° F
Food. This includes a wider variety of materials found in homes
Moisture

If insufficient levels of any of these requirements exist, all mold growth will stop and fungi will go dormant. Most are difficult to actually kill.

Even though mold growth may take place in the attic, mold spores can be sucked into the living areas of a residence by low air pressure. Low air pressure is usually created by the expulsion of household air from exhaust fans in bathrooms, dryers, kitchens and heating equipment.

Improper ventilation
Ventilation ducts must be made from appropriate materials and oriented effectively in order to ensure that stale air is properly exhausted.

Ventilation ducts must:

Terminate outdoors. Ducts should never terminate within the building envelope.
Contain a screen or louvered (angled) slats at its termination to prevent bird, rodent and insect entry.
Be as short and straight as possible and avoid turns. Longer ducts allow more time for vapor to condense and also force the exhaust fan to work harder.
Be insulated, especially in cooler climates. Cold ducts will encourage condensation.
Protrude at least several inches from the roof.
Be equipped with a roof termination cap that protects the duct from the elements.
Installed to manufacturer's recommendations.

The following tips are helpful although not required. Ventilation ducts should:

Be made from inflexible metal, PVC, or other rigid material. Unlike dryer exhaust vents, they should not droop.
Have smooth interiors. Ridges will encourage vapor to condense, allowing water to backflow into the exhaust fan or leak through joints onto vulnerable surfaces.

Above all else, a bathroom ventilation fan should be connected to a duct capable of venting water vapor and odors into the outdoors. Mold growth within the bathroom or attic is a clear indication of improper ventilation that must be corrected in order to avoid structural decay and respiratory health issues.

Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters

2009-12-07T12:24:00.000-08:00

Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs) are special types of electrical outlets and circuit breakers designed to detect and respond to potentially dangerous electrical arcs in home branch wiring.
How do they work?

AFCIs function by monitoring the electrical waveform and promptly opening (interrupting) the circuit they serve if they detect changes in the wave pattern that are characteristic of a dangerous arc. They also must be capable of distinguishing safe, normal arcs, such as those created when a switch is turned on or a plug is pulled from a receptacle, from arcs that can cause fires. An AFCI can detect, recognize, and respond to very small changes in wave pattern.
What is an arc?

When an electric current crosses an air gap from an energized component to a grounded component it produces a glowing plasma discharge known as an arc. For example, a bolt of lightening is as a very large, powerful arc that crosses an atmospheric gap from an electrically charged cloud to the ground or another cloud. Just as lightning can cause fires, arcs produced by domestic wiring are capable of producing high levels of heat that can ignite their surroundings and lead to structure fires.
According to statistics for the year 2005 from the National Fire Protection Agency, electrical fires damaged approximately 20,900 homes, killed 500 people, and cost $862 million in property damage. Although short-circuits and overloads account for many of these fires, arcs are responsible for the majority and are undetectable by tradition (non AFCI) circuit breakers.
Where are arcs likely to form?

Arcs can form where wires are improperly installed or when insulation becomes damaged. In older homes, wire insulation tends to crystallize as it ages, becoming brittle and prone to cracking and chipping. Damaged insulation exposes the current-carrying wire to its surroundings, increasing the chances that an arc may occur.

Situations in which arcs may be created:
Electrical cords damaged by vacuum cleaners or trapped beneath furniture or doors.
Damage to wire insulation from nails or screws driven through walls.
Appliance cords damaged by heat, natural aging, kinking, impact or overextension.
Spillage of liquid.
Loose connections in outlets, switches and light fixtures.
Where are AFCIs required?

Locations in which AFCIs are required depend on the building codes adopted by their jurisdiction. Inspectors are responsible for knowing what building codes are used in the areas in which they inspect.
The 2006 International Residential Code (IRC) requires that AFCIs be installed within bedrooms in the following manner:
E3802.12 Arc-Fault Protection of Bedroom Outlets. All branch circuits that supply120-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20- amp outlets installed in bedrooms shall be protected by a combination type or branch/feeder type arc-fault circuit interrupter installed to provide protection of the entire branch circuit.
Exception: The location of the arc-fault circuit interrupter shall be permitted to be at other than the origination of the branch circuit provided that:
The arc-fault circuit interrupter is installed within 6’ feet of the branch circuit overcurrent device as measured along the branch circuit conductors and
The circuit conductors between the branch circuit overcurrent device and the arc-fault circuit interrupter are installed in a metal raceway or a cable with metallic sheath.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) offers the following guidelines concerning AFCI placement within bedrooms:
Units. All 120-volt, single phase, 15- and 20-ampere branch circuits supplying outlets installed in dwelling unit in family rooms, dining rooms, living rooms, parlors, libraries, dens, sun rooms, recreation rooms, closets, hallways, or similar rooms or areas shall be protected by a listed arc-fault circuit interrupter, combination type installed to provide protection of the branch circuit.
Home inspectors should refrain from quoting exact code in their reports. A plaintiff's attorney might suggest that code quotation means that the inspector was performing a code inspection and is therefore responsible for identifying all code violations in the home. Some jurisdictions do not yet require their implementation in locations where they can be helpful.

What types of AFCIs are available?

The four most common types of AFCIs are as follows:
Branch/feeder—installed at the main electrical panel or sub-panel.
Outlet circuit—installed in a branch-circui outlet.
Combination—complies with the requirements of both the branch/feeder and the outlet circuit AFCI’s.
Cord—a plug-in device connected to the receptacle outlet
Nuisance Tripping

An AFCI might activate in situations that are not dangerous and create needless power shortages. This can be particularly annoying when an AFCI stalls power to a freezer or refrigerator, allowing its contents to spoil. There are a few procedures an electrical contractor can perform in order to reduce potential “nuisance tripping”, such as:
Check that the load power wire, panel neutral wire and load neutral wire are properly connected
Check wiring to ensure that there are no shared neutral connections.
Check the junction box and fixture connections to ensure that the neutral conductor contacts a grounded conductor.
Arc Faults vs. Ground Faults

It is important to distinguish AFCI devices from Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) devices. GFCIs detect ground faults, which occur when current leaks from a hot (ungrounded) conductor to a grounded object as a result of a short-circuit. This situation can be hazardous when a person unintentionally becomes the current’s path to the ground. GFCIs function by constantly monitoring the current flow between hot and neutral (grounding) conductors and activate when they sense a difference of 5 milliamps or more. Thus, GFCIs are intended to prevent personal injury due to electric shock while AFCIs prevent personal injury and property damage due to structure fires.
In summary, AFCIs are designed to detect small arcs of electricity before they have a chance to lead to a structure fire.

Helpful Contractors

2009-11-25T11:21:00.000-08:00

Cravens Home Inspection Services does not warrant or guarantee any work performed by this list of contractors. It is just a list that we have heard good things about from realtors and we are passing this along.

Electrician - Kell Wolf - 486-1170

Fireplace - Clean Deans - 742-2000

Termite - Sureshot - 259-9058

Security - C&W - 624-2603

Mold Remediation - David Hanning - 994-6531

Roofing - Otto Dorris

Home repairs - Paul Belongia - 271-2038
271-2038

Baumgartner Plumbing - 355-4747

Energy Audits - Kelly Parker - Watt Savers
405-495-9959

Tree Trimmer - Josh Fielstra - 409-3638

Duct Coating - Hydo Physics - 742-4470

Welcome to Cravens Inspections

2009-11-23T11:26:00.001-08:00

Welcome to Cravens Inspections